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OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  is  DUE  < 


RANCH, 

;ALIFORNIA, 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

THEIR  BASIS  AND  STATEMENT 

DEVELOPED  FROM  A  FUNCTIONAL 

STANDPOINT 

REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


BY 

W.  W.  CHARTERS 

PROFESSOR    OF  THEORY    OF   TEACHING    AND   DEAN    OF   THE 
SCHOOL    OF    EDUCATION,    UNIVERSITY    OF    MISSOURI 


CHICAGO 
ROW,  PETERSON  &  COMPANY 


69959 


COPYRIGHT,  1912 

BY 
W.  W.  CHAETERS 


\  0*2-5 


>j  PREFACE 

M, 

The  point  of  view  from  which  the  problems  of  teaching 
are  discussed  in  this  text  is  a  functional  one.     It  presup- 
poses  that   all   subject-matter   has   been   created   and   pre- 
served by  the   race  to   satisfy  needs  and  solve  problems, 
and  that  in  the  schools  such  parts  of  this  subject-matter 
as  satisfy  the  most  fundamental  needs  are  taught  to  pupils. 
But  this  is  not  done  in   indiscriminate  order.     Rather,  in 
^    the  main,  any  unit  of  subject-matter  is*  best  presented  when 
**     the  need  for  whose  satisfaction  it  is  preserved  is  potentially 
^     or  actually   present   in   the   experience   of   the   pupils.      In 
x    accordance  with  this  view  the  intrinsic  function  and  the 
v^*  structure  of  units  of  subject-matter  become  of  prime  im- 
portance,   involving   a   phase   of   methods   of   teaching,  to 
which  relatively  little  attention  has  been  paid  in  pedagogical 
literature.      To    complete    a   practical    description    of   this 
%      conception  as  applied  to  teaching  it  has  been  found  neces- 
^%  sary  to  discuss  the  methods  of  arousing  the  appropriate 
^    needs  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  found  pres- 
ent, and  to  investigate  the  methods  pursued  by  experience 
both  in  satisfying  these  needs,  to  the  aid  of  which  subject- 
matter  is  invoked,  and  in  securing  the  maximum  degree  of 
such  satisfaction. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  point  of  view  here  developed  will 
not  be  confused  with  the  problem  of  school  discipline  con- 
cerning the  authority  of  the  teacher.  In  answer  to  the 
question,  Are  pupils  expected  to  study  subject-matter  if  they 
do  not  feel  the  need  for  it?  only  an  affirmative  answer  can 
be  given,  and  such  answer  should  be  given  emphatically. 
The  points  to  be  remembered  are  these:  Authority  is  the 
buttress  of  the  school ;  but  other  motives  than  that  of  mere 
obedience  to  authority  may  and  should  be  used.  When 
other  motives  fail  recourse  should  be  had  to  obedience,  to 
the  study  of  subject-matter  merely  because  it  is  prescribed 
by  the  school  authorities. 

For  the  philosophical   standpoint  utilized  and  applied  I 


4  PREFACE 

am  indebted  to  my  instructors  in  the  University  of  Chicago, 
and  particularly  to  Professor  John  Dewey,  and  for  the 
psychological  analogies  which  have  steadied  and  illuminated 
the  application  of  this  standpoint  I  am  under  obligation  to 
Professor  J.  R.  Angell.  For  assistance,  through  criticism 
and  suggestion,  acknowledgment  is  made  to  Dr.  J.  H. 
Coursault  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  to  Dr.  I.  E.  Miller 
of  the  Milwaukee  State  Normal  School,  to  Dr.  G.  M. 
Whipple  of  Cornell  University,  to  Dr.  A.  W.  Vining  of 
Brandon  College,  to  Mr.  R.  K.  Row  of  Chicago,  and  to  my 
wife.  For  assistance  in  developing  the  standpoint  and  for 
forbearance  while  this  was  under  way  I  am  deeply  grateful 
to  my  former  colleagues  in  the  Winona,  Minnesota,  State 
Normal  School.  For  suggestions  from  sources  too  numer- 
ous to  acknowledge  individually  I  am  indebted  to  writers 
upon  educational  problems.  W.  W.  C. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI,  June,  1909. 

PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITION 

After  teaching  the  old  edition  of  this  text  since  its  pub- 
lication three  years  ago,  I  have  found  certain  changes  advis- 
able. In  the  former  book  my  interest,  being  chiefly  in  the 
problems — need  and  subject-matter — led  me  to  underem- 
phasize  the  topics  discussed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  book. 
This  weakness  became  evident  as  soon  as  the  text  was  used 
in  class.  Hence,  in  revision  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
supply  a  basic  text  by  balancing  the  various  topics  and 
giving  a  fairly  complete  list  of  references  for  class  reading. 
The  exercises  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  intended  pri- 
marily to  get  the  students  into  the  habit  of  thinking  out 
the  principles  in  terms  of  concrete  illustrations. 

For  assistance  in  pointing  out  weakness  and  suggesting 
improvement  in  the  text,  I  wish  to  thank  all  the  instructors 
who  have  used  it,  but  particularly  Miss  Ida  M.  Densmore 
of  the  Kalamazoo  State  Normal  School  and  Dr.  C.  W. 
Stone  of  the  Farmville  State  Normal  School. 

W.  W.  C. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI,  August,  1912. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING 9 

Sec.  i.  Statement  of  Function 9 

Sec.  2.  The  Values  of  Life n 

Sec.  3.  Appreciation  of  Values 21 

Sec.  4.  Control  of  Values 22 

Sec.  5.  Assistance  of  Pupils 23 

CHAPTER  II.     SUBJECT- MATTER 26 

Sec.  i.     The  Origin  of  Subject-Matter 26 

Sec.  2.     Subject-Matter  and  Action 30 

CHAPTER  III.    DISTINCTIONS  IN  THE  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION....  42 

Sec.  i.     Introductory    42 

Sec.  2.     Intrinsic  and  Indirect  Functions 43 

Sec.  3.     Function  for  the  Author,  Teacher,  and  Pupil 47 

Sec.  4.     Subject-Matter  as  End  and  as  Means 54 

CHAPTER  IV.    THE  INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER....  59 

Sec.  i.     Subject- Matter  of  the  Race  and  of  the  Pupil 59 

Sec.  2.     The  Language  Group 63 

Sec.  3.    History  72 

Sec.  4.     Geography   74 

Sec.  5.     Primary    Subjects 77 

Sec.  6.     Other  Subjects 79 

CHAPTER      V.    THE  STRUCTURE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 83 

CHAPTER    VI.    ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE.  ...     93 

CHAPTER  VII.    THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY 107 

Sec.  i.     Factors  in  the  Selection  of  Subject- Matter 107 

Sec.  2.     Details  of  Selection no 

Sec.  3.     Tentative  List  of  Required  Subjects 115 

5 


6  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VIII.    THE  TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 119 

Sec.  I.     The   Problem  of  Teaching 119 

Sec.  2.     The  Characteristics  of  Pupils 121 

Sec.  3.     The  "Culture  Epoch"  Theory 136 

Sec.  4.    The  Teacher's  Tools 138 

CHAPTER  IX.     MOTIVE 146 

Sec.  i.     Interest  146 

Sec.  2.     Conditions  Giving  Rise  to  Mediate  Interest 154 

CHAPTER  X.     MOTIVE  (Continued) 158 

Sec.  i.    Need   158 

Sec.  2.    Generic  Values 165 

Sec.  3.     Specific  Values 169 

CHAPTER  IX.     MOTIVE  (Continued) 173 

Sec.  i.     Active  and  Potential   Motives 173 

Sec.  2.     Problem  as   Motive 174 

Sec.  3.    The  Problem  and  the  Statement  of  Aim 181 

CHAPTER  XII.    CONTROL  OF  VALUES 185 

Sec.  i.     Methods  of  Control 185 

Sec.  2.    Analysis  of  the  Process  of  Control 187 

CHAPTER  XIII.    PSYCHOLOGICAL  AND  LOGICAL  ORGANIZATION 208 

Sec.  I.     Introductory    208 

Sec.  2.     The  Daily  Lesson 208 

Sec.  3.     Specific  Subjects 217 

Sec.  4.    Growth  of  Subject-Matter 219 

CHAPTER  XIV.     INCIDENTAL  AND  SYSTEMATIC   TREATMENT  OF 

SUBJECT-MATTER 224 

Sec.  i.     Logically  Organized   Subject-Matter 224 

Sec.  2.     Psychologized  Subject-Matter 225 

Sec.  3.     Correlation  and  Concentration * 226 

Sec.  4.     Central  Subj  ects 229 

Sec.  5.    Incidental  Subj  ects 236 

CHAPTER  XV.    ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  246 

Sec.  i.    Composition    246 

Sec.  2.     Reading    253 


CONTENTS  7 

PAGE 

Sec.  3.  Writing 255 

Sec.  4.  History  256 

Sec.  5.  Arithmetic   261 

Sec.  6.  Physics   264 

CHAPTER  XVI.     FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION 266 

Sec.  i.    "Telling"    266 

Sec.  2.     Developing  Subject-Matter 268 

CHAPTER  XVII.    TEXT-BOOKS 278 

Sec.  I.     Introductory    , 278 

Sec.  2.     Problems 279 

Sec.  3.    Data 282 

Sec.  4.     Hypotheses    288 

Sec.  5.     Verification    289 

CHAPTER  XVIII.     QUESTIONING , 296 

Sec.  I.  Function  of  Questioning 296 

Sec.  2.  Structure  of  Questions 304 

Sec.  3.  Standards   for  Questions 305 

Sec.  4.  The  Socratic   Method 307 

Sec.  5.  Answers  310 

Sec.  6.  Class  Questions  and  Answers 31 1 

CHAPTER  XIX.     INDUCTION 314 

Sec.  i.     Origin  of  the  Inductive  Method 314 

Sec.  2.     Definition  and  Analysis  of  Induction 316 

Sec.  3.     Induction  a  Special  Form  of  Problem 320 

Sec.  4.     The  Herbartian  "Five  Formal  Steps" 321 

CHAPTER  XX.     DEDUCTION 337 

Sec.  i.     Definition    and    Analysis 337 

Sec.  2.     Deduction  a  Special  Form  of  Problem  and  Solu- 
tion   340 

Sec.  3.    Types  of  Deductive  Lessons 343 

Sec.  4.    Relation  of  Induction  to  Deduction 351 

CHAPTER  XXI.    THE  UTILIZATION  OF  PAST  EXPERIENCE 355 

Sec.  i.    The  Old  and  the  New 355 

Sec.  2.    Review  for  Motive 358 

Sec.  3.    Review  as  an  Aid  in  Solution 360 


8  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Sec.  4.     Review  for  Functional  Connection 361 

Sec.  5.     Review  of  the  Previous  Lesson 362 

CHAPTER    XXII.     METHODS  OF  SECURING  REALNESS 365 

CHAPTER  XXIII.     THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 374 

Sec.  i.     Subject-Matter  as  an  Instrument 374 

Sec.  2.     Application    378 

SEC.  3-     Drill  383 

CHAPTER  XXIV.     ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS 396 

CHAPTER    XXV.     THE  LESSON  PLAN 415 

Sec.  I.     Form  of  Lesson  Plan 415 

Sec.  2.     Examples  of  Written  Form 419 

Sec.  3.     The  Writing  of  Lesson  Plans 431 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   FUNCTION   OF    TEACHING 

SECTION  i.     STATEMENT  OF  FUNCTION 

The  purpose,  or  function,  of  teaching  is  to  assist  pupils  to 
appreciate  and  control  the  values  of  life. 

This  statement  differs  from  that  of  the  McMurrys  when 
they  say  r1  "One  leading  aim  of  instruction  in  every  impor- 
tant study  is  a  mastery,  in  the  full  sense,  of  its  general 
truths."  In  their  statement,  the  "mastery  of  general  truths" 
is  the  distinguishing  characteristic;  in  ours,  the  "apprecia- 
tion and  control  of  values."  It  differs  also  from  Rowe's 
formulation  :2  "In  all  types  of  learning  it  is  evidently  the 
organization  of  experiences  which  is  the  underlying  impor- 
tant element  common  and  essential  to  all.  In  the  realm  of 
knowledge  it  implies  classification,  generalization,  system, 
or  orderly  arrangement  of  ideas;  in  the  realm  of  practical 
skill  it  implies  automatic  action,  appointed  times,  places  and 
even  ways  of  acting — in  a  word,  habit."  Here  the  organ- 
ization of  knowledge  into  systems  and  of  action  into  habits 
are  the  distinguishing  elements  of  the  standpoint. 

The  industrious  teacher,  reading  pedagogical  literature 
for  pleasure  or  for  profit,  chafes  a  good  deal  at  the  differ- 
ences between  writers  in  the  same  fields,  and  occasionally 

1  Method  of  the  Recitation,  p.  12. 

2  Habit-Formation,  p.  7. 

9 


10  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

fretfully  inquires  about  the  time  when  the  same  thing  will 
always  be  stated  in  the  same  words.  Yet  there  is  a  definite 
value  attached  to  this  difference  in  terminology.  Each 
writer  lays  emphasis  in  a  different  place;  each  is,  perhaps, 
equally  right  and  correspondingly  equally  wrong.  How- 
ever, because  each  lays  emphasis  in  a  certain  place,  he  works 
that  part  of  the  field  out  thoroughly  and  hands  it  over 
to  investigators  as  his  contribution. 

For  instance,  in  the  opening  paragraph  the  McMurrys 
are  quoted  as  saying  that  the  mastery  of  general  truths  is 
the  aim  of  education,  and  just  because  they  made  that  the 
aim  they  worked  out  methods  corresponding  thereto,  and 
gave  us  the  technique  of  inductive  development.  This  is 
the  Herbartian  contribution,  in  part,  to  American  pedagogy. 
Because  they  took  a  different  aim,  they  worked  out  a  new 
part  of  the  field.  Again,  Rowe  selects  habit-formation 
as  the  aim  of  education  and  he,  on  his  part,  works  out  a 
part  of  the  field  that  the  McMurrys  did  not  develop — 
methods  of  drill  and  organization.  And  now  in  this  text 
another  function  is  stated.  As  a  consequence,  it  is  hoped 
that  other  parts  of  the  field — particularly,  subject-matter 
and  motive — will  be  developed,  while  the  results  secured 
by  other  writers  will  be  summarized  and  organized. 

In  brief,  then,  the  teacher  should  welcome  the  study  of 
the  subject  from  different  points  of  view,  since  each  point 
of  view  develops  a  new  part  of  the  field. 

Because  the  terminology  in  which  the  function  of  teach- 
ing was  stated  above  is  probably  unfamiliar  to  many 
readers,  space  will  be  given  at  once  to  a  brief  explanation 
of  its  meaning,  sufficient  for  an  immediate  starting  point. 
But,  since  the  whole  text  is  merely  an  analysis  of  the  con- 
cepts involved  and  implied  in  the  statement  given,  a  sys- 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  n 

tematic  understanding  will  not  be  attained  until  the  book  is 
finished  and  the  analysis  completed. 

SECTION  2.    THE  VALUES  OF  LIFE 

Values  of  Life. — The  most  important  term  in  our  defi- 
nition is  values  of  life  because  all  motives  for  action,  as  we 
shall  see  in  Chapters  IX-XI,  are  based  on  values.  If  an 
orator  wishes  his  hearers  to  follow  his  advice,  he  must 
make  them  feel  that  what  he  advises  is  worth  their  while, 
that  what  he  says  is  true,  and  that  what  he  asks  is  good 
for  them.  If  he  fails  in  this,  they  will  not  follow  him.  If  a 
salesman  desires  to  sell  an  article  to  a  customer,  he  must 
demonstrate  that  this  article  will  be  useful  in  gaining  some- 
thing that  the  customer  wants.  Otherwise  there  will  be  no 
purchase.  If  a  teacher  wishes  his  pupils  to  perform  an 
assignment,  he  must  make  them  feel  that  it  has  some  value, 
or  it  will  not  be  done. 

Range  of  Values. — The  range  of  human,  values  is  as 
broad  as  life  itself.  Hopes,  aspirations  and  ideals,  joys  and 
sorrows,  business,  family  and  church,  are  valuable  in  dif- 
fering degrees.  Avoidance  of  punishment,  approbation  of 
teachers  and  of  associates,  arithmetic,  history,  geography, 
games,  sleds  and  toys,  may  possess  charms  for  the  develop- 
ing child.  Indeed,  whenever  an  action  is  observed,  some 
value  has  prompted  it,  and  since  kinds  of  action  are  multi- 
tudinous, we  can  infer  that  values  are  likewise  multi- 
tudinous. 

But  while  their  range  is  so  broad  and  their  number  so 
large,  values  may  be  grouped  incompletely  under  heads  use- 
ful for  the  purposes  of  teaching. 

Aims  of  Education.— It  is  an  interesting  fact  that 
each  of  the  statements  of  the  aim  of  education  propounded 


12  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

since  the  birth  of  time  and  found  scattered  through  the 
writings  of  men  of  all  ages  has  some  great  human  value 
at  its  core.  To  Socrates,  the  necessity  for  formulating 
universals  (the  great  principles  that  would  give  certainty 
to  thought  in  the  midst  of  the  intellectual  chaos  of  middle 
Greek  history)  was  the  paramount  value  of  his  age,  and 
he  made  this  ability  to  formulate  universals  the  aim  of 
education. 

The  souls  of  the  members  of  the  early  church  glowed 
with  missionary  zeal.  To  them  the  moral  regeneration  of 
the  world  was  the  paramount  value  of  life,  and  they  made 
morality  the  aim  of  education.  When  the  nations  of  Europe 
awoke  from  the  intellectual  coma  of  the  Dark  Ages,  and 
"new  aspirations  for  the  development  of  a  free  person- 
ality defined  on  both  the  intellectual  and  the  emotional  side 
as  well"  were  re-born,  a  well-rounded,  fully-matured  indi- 
viduality seemed  the  greatest  thing  in  the  world,  and  the 
aim  of  education  was  accordingly  formulated  as  the  de- 
velopment of  this  "liberal"  individual.  Later,  when  the 
first  enthusiasm  of  this  eloquent  conception  had  died,  and 
only  the  classical  husk  was  left,  it  was  held  among  the 
"cultured"  classes  that  the  superlative  value  of  the  times 
was  to  become  acquainted  with  Greek  and  Latin,  and  the 
aim  of  education  was  accordingly  formulated  in  those 
terms. 

The  increasing  value  of  the  "individual"  which  brought 
on  the  French  Revolution  was  voiced  by  Rousseau,  who, 
therefore,  held  that  the  aim  of  education  is  to  give  the  child 
a  chance  to  develop  himself  in  the  direction  in  which  his 
"natural"  instincts,  impulses,  and  tendencies  will  lead  him. 
Today,  when  the  individualistic  conception  has  come  to  have 
gigantic  power  in  moulding  the  actions  of  men,  a  new  value 
is  rising  to  national  consciousness — the  value  expressed  in 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  13 

the  Golden  Rule — social  helpfulness,  or  enlistment  in  the 
service  of  society.  This  value  is  accordingly  formulated 
in  the  term  "social  efficiency"  as  the  aim  of  education. 

'Other  values  have  been  implied  in  other  aims  of  educa- 
tion. Piety,  knowledge  and  eloquence,  complete  living, 
citizenship,  the  development  of  mental  faculties  "trained 
to  come  to  heel  by  a  vigorous  will,"  and  earning  a  liveli- 
hood, are  a  few  of  them.  Each  of  these  today,  somewhere, 
or  by  somebody,  is  held  to  be  a  value,  and  all,  in  varying 
orders  of  emphasis,  are  held  by  everybody  as  values  appre- 
ciated or  worthy  of  appreciation. 

The  Virtues. — From  the  first  awakening  of  moral  as- 
pirations and  the  first  attempts  to  explain  moral  conduct, 
men  have  been  picking  out  those  factors  of  social  well- 
being  which,  when  utilized,  have  been  morally  helpful,  and 
have  called  them  the  virtues.  But  each  is  a  value.  In 
fact,  society  considers  some  of  them  to  be  so  valuable  that 
it  has  taken  steps  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  society  those 
men  and  \vomen  who  do  not  practice  them,  and  for  the 
violation  of  some  of  the  more  important  virtues  has  taken 
the  lives  of  the  transgressors. 

Hyde  has  a  simple  though  incomplete  classification  which 
will  be  of  use  to  teachers.  His  list  is  as  follows:1 

Virtue,  temperance,  neatness,  cheerfulness,  industry, 
economy,  honesty,  purity,  veracity,  prudence,  orderliness, 
courage,  sensitiveness,  simplicity,  kindness,  love,  benevo- 
lence, forgiveness,  fidelity,  loyalty,  patriotism,  public  spirit, 
conscientiousness,  holiness. 

The  older  texts  on  school  management,  with  their 
thoroughgoing  moral  tendencies,  classify  the  school  virtues. 
For  instance  Millar2  includes  in  his  list  regularity,  punctu- 

1  Practical  Ethics,  pp.  vi  and  vii. 

2  Millar,  School  Management,  pp.  81  ff. 


I4  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ality,  industry,  quietness,  neatness,  obedience,  temperance, 
honesty,  courtesy,  and  self-control. 

The  virtues,  like  the  instincts,  are,  in  a  sense,  means  of 
conserving  or  controlling  values.  Veracity,  for  instance, 
became  a  virtue  not  by  chance,  but  by  choice.  It  was 
found  that  veracity  was,  in  the  main,  a  good  means  of 
preserving  and  furthering  those  values  which  were  para- 
mount, such  as  self-preservation  and  social  solidarity.  If 
falsehood  had  conserved  these  values  better,  it  would  now 
be  the  virtue  and  veracity  the  vice.  The  virtues  are,  then, 
means  to  the  conservation  of  values.  But  because  they  are 
excellent  means  of  securing  these  values,  they  in  turn 
become  values. 

The  Instincts. — The  instincts,  "preformed  methods  of 
acting,"  have  been  formed  because  certain  values  have 
been  of  tremendous  importance  and  in  need  of  constant  care. 
Each  of  the  instincts  is  a  method  by  which  some  value  is 
controlled.  Something  very  necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the 
organism  has  been  in  danger ;  a  good  method  of  protecting  it 
has  been  found  and  has  been  repeated  so  often  that  it  has 
become  instinctive.  For  instance,  self-preservation  (a 
value)  may  have  been  endangered;  a  good  method  of  pre- 
serving the  self  was  found  in  flight,  and  this  was  repeated 
until  it  has  become  instinctive  in  certain  animals.  Or,  to 
conserve  life,  fighting  was  also  found  to  be  a  good  method, 
and  it,  by  repetition,  became  instinctive. 

According  to  Angell,1  the  instincts  in  man  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Fear,  anger,  shyness,  curiosity,  affection,  sexual  love, 
jealousy  and  envy,  rivalry,  sociability,  sympathy,  modesty 
(?),  play,  imitation,  constructiveness,  secretiveness,  and 
acquisitiveness. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  virtues,  the  instincts  have  been  so 

1  Psychology,  p.  .?49- 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  15 

constant  and  efficient  as  conservors  of  elements  valuable 
to  men,  that  they  have  themselves  become  valuable,  and  for 
our  purposes  we  may  speak  of  the  instincts  in  both  senses — 
both  as  values  and  as  methods  of  controlling  values. 

If  we  think  of  them  as  values,  we  see  at  once  that  they 
are  not  only  valuable,  but  that  they  are  probably  the  most 
powerful  of  all  motives  that  move  man.  Curiosity  is  so 
valuable  that  if  man  had  not  possessed  it,  he  would  never 
have  explored  his  surroundings  and  might  have  been  trapped 
and  destroyed.  If  it  were  taken  from  man,  one  result  would 
be  that  science  would  die,  since  curiosity  is  the  strongest 
motive  for  scientific  investigation.  Sexual  love  is  at  the 
basis  of  the  greatest  tragedies  of  human  existence,  and 
is  the  motive  for  the  noblest  human  endeavors.  Sociability 
is  so  fundamentally  valuable  that,  deprived  of  contact  with 
their  fellows,  prisoners  grow  insane  in  solitary  confinement. 
The  old  school  poem  voiced  a  psychological  truth  when  it 
had  Sir  Alexander  Selkirk  say  on  his  lonely  island: 

"O   Solitude,  where  are  the  charms 
That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face? 

Better  dwell  in  the  midst  of  alarms 
Than  reign  in  this  horrible  place." 

These  instincts  are  all  worthy  of  high  regard  in  spite  of 
criticism  offered  against  them.  For  instance,  fear  possesses 
value,  though  to  be  afraid  is  often  considered  to  be  a  crime. 
For  if  a  man  feared  nothing  he  might  be  destroyed  by  any- 
thing stronger  than  himself.  Fear  is  considered  to  be  a 
weakness  only  when  it  is  produced  by  something  that  is  not 
strong  and  powerful  enough  to  justify  fear. 

Anger  is  one  of  the  mainsprings  of  vigorous  action. 
Without  the  capability  of  anger  man  is  as  helpless  as  a 


!6  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

sailing  vessel  without  wind  to  drive  it.  Instincts  are  to  be 
discouraged  only  when  uncontrolled  and  misdirected,  and 
all  instincts  are  worthy  of  high  regard  so  long  as  they  are 
controlled  by  man,  or,  if  controlling  him,  so  long  as  they 
guide  him  toward  the  goals  of  self-realization  and  social 
welfare. 

Complete  Living. — Spencer1  divides  values  into  four 
large  classes,  as  follows:  first,  self-preservation;  second, 
the  rearing  and  disciplining  of  offspring;  third,  the  main- 
tenance of  proper  social  and  political  relationships;  and 
fourth,  gratification  of  tastes  and  feelings.  These  are 
listed  in  the  order  of  importance. 

Needs — Values  and  needs  are  closely  related  in  two 
ways.  In  the  first  place,  as  we  shall  show  in  its  proper 
place,  needs  rise  out  of  values.  Food  is  a  value;  its  lack 
produces  need.  Friendship  is  a  value ;  its  lack,  likewise, 
produces  need.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  ashes  of  Vesu- 
vius possess  no  value,  the  lack  of  them  produces  no  need. 
In  the  second  place,  whatever  satisfies  or  tends  to  satisfy  a 
felt  need  possesses  value.  The  effort  to  satisfy  human  needs 
has  produced  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  literature,  the 
greatest  institutions  of  society,  and  the  most  effective  instru- 
ments of  industry. 

Problems. — Problems  and  needs  are,  likewise,  closely 
related.  When  we  fail  to  control  values,  a  problem  arises — 
the  problem  of  how  to  gain  control.  When  we  fail  to  con- 
trol things  of  no  value,  we  pay  no  attention  to  the  failure, 
and  no  problem  arises.  A  problem  arises,  then,  only  in  con- 
nection with  values,  and  what  is  a  problem  to  one  may 
never  become  a  problem  to  another,  because  to  him  the 
whole  situation  possesses  no  value.  But  every  value  over 

1  Education,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1909,  pp.  13  and  14. 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  17 

which  we  do  not  possess  control  becomes  at  one  time  or 
another  the  subject  of  a  problem. 

Interest. — Another  method  of  grouping  values  is  found 
in  the  term  "interest."  Whatever  interests  a  person  pos- 
sesses value  for  him.  Whatever  possesses  no  value  for  a 
man  will  not  interest  him.  The  object  of  interest  is  a  value. 
The  child,  interested  in  kittens,  feels  that  they  possess  some 
value ;  the  adult,  interested  in  business,  values  the  business ; 
the  woman,  with  an  interest  in  embroidery,  feels  it  to  be 
of  value/ 

A  Psychological  Classification.  —  A  classification  of 
values  which  seems  to  be  both  serviceable  and  complete  is 
the  following:  moral,  religious,  social,  intellectual,  aesthetic, 
physical,  emotional,  and  practical. 

According  to  this  classification  there  are  eight  great  atti- 
tudes toward  life,  overlapping  to  a  certain  extent,  but  each 
of  importance  in  education.  Moral  values  differ  from 
religious  values  in  that  the  first  embraces  all  those  situa- 
tions connected  with  the  concept  of  right  and  wrong,  while 
the  second  embraces  all  those  connected  with  the  idea  of 
God.  The  same  situation  for  one  may  be  merely  a  moral 
situation,  for  another  a  religious  one. 

By  practical  values  is  meant  values  that  occur  in  our 
everyday,  commonplace  life,  as  well  as  in  moments  of  stress 
and  concern.  Particular  cases  of  the  other  seven  groups  of 
values  may  be  practical,  and  are  in  those  cases  in  which 
activity  in  the  plane  of  ordinary  endeavor  is  put  forth. 

Intellectual  values  are  described  by  the  phrase  "knowl- 

1  To  some  readers,  it  may  seem  that  the  term  interest,  which  is 
well  known,  is  satisfactory  for  all  purposes  in  methods  of  teaching 
and  that  the  introduction  of  the  term  "values"  is  gratuitous.  And 
it  would  be  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  "values"  will  enable  us  more 
easily  to  show  the  place  of  need  and  problems  as  motives  for  learn- 
ing, as  will  be  shown  in  due  time. 


18  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

edge  for  its  own  sake."  These  are  numberless.  Every  man 
has  ideas,  seeks  facts,  stores  knowledge,  as  interesting 
things — frequently  of  little  practical  value,  and  seldom  lead- 
ing to  social  or  moral  action.  The  scientist  is  one  predomi- 
nantly biased  toward  intellectual  values,  The  greatest 
weakness  of  teachers  is  that  in  practice  they  seem  for  the 
most  part  to  go  on  the  assumption  that  knowledge  is  th2 
only  value  worthy  of  con'.rol.  We  do  little  in  school  tJ 
assist  the  pupil  to  control  social  or  aesthetic  values;  we 
utilize  few  situations  in  which  the  emotions  play  a  strong 
part;  to  us  the  school  and  teaching  have  a  predominantly, 
if  not  exclusively,  intellectual  function. 

Degrees  of  Value. — Values  differ  in  degree.  The  sage 
who  said,  "Self-preservation  is  the  first  law  of  life,"  meant 
that  to  live  is  the  most  valuable  thing  in  all  experience. 
Patriots,  however,  who  sacrifice  their  lives  in  the  defense  of 
national  honor  and  ideals  would,  in  making  love  of  country 
the  dearest  principle  of  action,  imply  that  for  them  the 
preservation  of  the  nation  is  more  valuable  than  the  preser- 
vation of  the  life  of  any  individual. 

In  common,  prosaic,  everyday  experience,  whenever  two 
things  to  be  done  are  present  and  one  is  chosen,  the  choice 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  for  some  reason  or  other  one  seems 
to  be  of  more  value  than  the  other.  Frequently  neither  is 
of  great  value.  Both  may  have  trifling  worth  and  would 
be  discarded  if  something  of  more  value  offered  itself.  For 
instance,  routine  usually  has  minimal  value.  We  perform 
the  tasks  of  habit  without  much  sense  of  value  in  them. 
But  the  important  point  is  that  they  possess  some  value,  or 
they  would  not  be  performed.  We  sometimes  say  that  what 
we  do  is  valueless,  but  we  must  mean  that  its  value  is 
trifling,  because  if  it  had  absolutely  no  value,  it  would  not 
be  done. 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  19 

The  degree  of  one  value  when  compared  with  other 
values  depends  upon  several  factors.  First,  it  may  depend 
historically  upon  the  age  of  the  nation.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  a  knowledge  of  the  classics  was  much  more  impor- 
tant than  it  is  in  the  twentieth  century.  Today  social  effi- 
ciency is  more  highly  emphasized  than  it  was  one  hundred 
years  ago.  Secondly,  it  depends  upon  national  factors.  In 
the  United  States  intellectual  ability  is  considered  nationally 
to  have  less  value  than  it  has  in  Germany,  while  financial 
standing  is  considered  much  more  important.  A  third  fac- 
tor that  determines  scales  of  value  is  individual  tempera- 
ment and  taste.  Certain  men  by  temperament  consider 
moral  living  to  be  most  important,  others  value  business 
success,  others  intellectual  pursuits,  still  others  friendship. 
Some  men  think  an  old  coin  more  valuable  than  a  marble 
palace.  A  mother  may  think  more  of  the  shoe  of  her 
deceased  baby  than  of  a  crown  of  diamonds.  A  fourth 
factor  is  the  age  of  the  individual.  In  infancy,  play,  for 
instance,  is  more  valuable  than  in  maturity,  while  neat- 
ness, cleanliness,  and  courtesy  are  valued  less  highly. 

Hence,  taken  all  in  all,  values  are  multitudinous,  com- 
plex and  all-pervasive.  They  enter  into  every  line  of  en- 
deavor and  determine  its  direction. 

Subjective  Values. — The  reader  may  have  felt  a  dis- 
tinction in  the  foregoing  discussion  between  two  senses 
in  which  the  term  values  has  been  used.  It  may  have  been 
felt  that  frequently  the  individual  will  do  things  that  are 
valueless  and  will  refuse  to  do  things  of  value.  For  in- 
stance, the  teacher  may  find  a  boy  wasting  his  time  on 
trifles  when  he  should  be  doing  important  things.  But 
to  the  boy  the  trifles  are  more  valuable  than  the  "impor- 
tant things." 

Values  may  be  subjective,   felt  by  the  individual  him- 


20  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

self,  or  they  may  be  objective — that  is,  outside  the  imme- 
diate experience  of  the  individual.  And  subjective  values 
are  the  only  basis  for  action,  since  they  are  present  in  the 
individual  experience.  The  boy  who  is  whittling  a  stick- 
when  he  should  be  helping  his  widowed  mother  earn  a 
living,  whittles  the  stick  because  it  is  to  him  at  that  time 
the  more  valuable  of  the  two  possibilities.  He  has  a  dis- 
torted perspective  of  worth,  to  be  sure,  but  he  is  acting 
in  line  with  the  principle.  In  fact,  the  only  way  to  get 
the  boy  to  help  his  mother  and  leave  the  whittling  for  some 
other  day  or  for  some  other  boy,  is  to  make  him  feel  that 
the  other  possibility  is  more  valuable.  In  other  words,  it 
is  necessary  to  make  the  objective  value  subjective.  Per- 
haps time  will  produce  this  by  its  alchemy,  perhaps  argu- 
ment, perhaps  fear  of  his  mother's  scolding;  but  in  any 
case  the  desire  to  help  must  wax  and  the  desire  to  whittle 
must  wane. 

Teaching,  when  it  is  seeking  for  motives  for  action, 
must,  therefore,  concern  itself  with  subjective  values,  with 
felt  values,  with  values  as  they  exist  in  the  experience  of 
the  individual.  It  is  concerned  with  objective  values,  with 
values  as  society  judges  them,  only  when  it  is  seeking  for 
direction  and  final  ideals.  But  the  two  must  not  be 
confused. 

Grading  Values. — The  practical  question  arises,  as  to 
which  is  the  most  important  value  and  which  the  next  in 
order.  Is  the  social,  the  moral,  the  intellectual,  or  the 
practical  first  in  order,  and  which  is  second?  This  we 
shall  not  attempt  to  settle  for  the  reader,  because  there  is 
no  standard  for  judging.  The  order  depends  upon  na- 
tionality, age,  and  temperament.  And,  moreover,  the 
function  of  teaching  which  we  have  stated  does  not  re- 
quire us  to  make  any  value  more  important  than  another. 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  21 

Our  problem  is  a  general  one — to  find  methods  of  helping 
the  child  to  appreciate  and  control  any  value  or  all  values 
irrespective  of  relative  importance.  It  is  sufficient  for  us 
to  say  that  there  are  values  to  be  controlled  and  to  leave 
the  order  of  preference  among  the  values  to  the  reader.1 

SECTION   3.     APPRECIATION  OF  VALUES 

The  purpose  of  teaching  was  stated  to  be  to  assist 
pupils  to  appreciate  and  control  the  values  of  life.  To 
appreciate  means  to  estimate  properly.  To  appreciate  the 
values  of  life  means  to  estimate  properly  the  values  of 
life.  This  makes  apparent  at  once  one  function  of  teach- 
ing in  that  it  is  its  business  to  assist  the  pupils  to  judge 
values,  or,  more  exactly,  it  means  to  assist  the  pupils  to 
value  highly  the  most  worthy  values  and  to  place  less 
value  upon  those  lower  in  the  scale  of  worth. 

We  are  well  acquainted  with  appreciation  as  implied  in 
the  term  ideals.  Good  ideals  are  values,  objectively  con- 
sidered. (Bad  ideals  may  be  values  subjectively  con- 
sidered.) It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that  one 
of  the  functions  of  teaching  is  to  build  up  high  ideals  in 
children.  Literature  is  said  by  some  to  have  its  chief  value 
in  giving  children  such  ideals.  History  and  biography 
nourish  ideals  of  patriotism,  success,  and  service.  Others 
say  that  the  schools  should  inculcate  ideals  of  accuracy, 
honesty,  and  neatness ;  and  all  of  this  is  but  another  way  of 
saying  that  the  business  of  the  school  is  to  assist  pupils 
to  appreciate  the  values  of  life. 

This  appreciation  may  be  of  two  sorts — intellectual  and 

1  For  arguments  concerning  the  most  important  aims  of  modern 
education,  see  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  40-65 ;  same,  Educa- 
tional Values,  pp.  107-116;  O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  pp. 
60-98;  Ruediger,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  102-116. 


22  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

emotional.  A  person  may  know  that  honesty  is  a  good 
thing,  but  he  may  not  feel  it  in  the  sense  that  it  becomes 
a  subjective  motive  for  the  practice  of  honesty.  We  are 
told  that  "the  devil  can  quote  scripture" — a  graphic  illus- 
tration of  the  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of 
appreciation. 

As  we  understand  it,  the  business  of  teaching  is  to  assist 
pupils  to  appreciate  in  both  senses,  to  have  them  know  the 
values  of  life  and  to  have  them  esteem,  prize,  and  love 
them. 

SECTION   4.     CONTROL   OF   VALUES 

It  is  a  long  day's  march  irom  appreciation  to  control. 
We  appreciate  the  moral  life,  but  it  is  difficult  to  gain 
such  control  of  ourselves  as  to  live  the  life  we  love.  It 
is  easy  to  value  business  success,,  but  quite  another  matter 
to  control  events  so  as  to  secure  success.  It  is  a  well-known 
truism  that  none  of  us  reach  our  ideals;  that  is,  we  do  not 
gain  control  of  the  things  we  set  for  ourselves  as  worthy 
of  effort. 

It  can  be  stated  as  a  fact  of  general  application  that  no 
man  controls  all  his  values.  The  range  of  interests  may 
be  wide,  their  intensity  high,  the  most  strenuous  effort  may 
be  put  forth,  but  in  the  end  a  great  gap  exists.  However, 
men  can  secure  better  control  if  they  know  how.  And  herein 
lies  the  business  of  teaching — to  assist  pupils  to  get  con- 
trol of  values,  to  show  them  how  to  reach  their  ideals. 
If  the  child  has  a  capability  for  aesthetic  enjoyment,  he 
should  be  helped  to  secure  it;  if  he  wishes  to  be  of 
service  to  society,  he  should  be  shown  how  to  be  of 
social  service;  and  if  he  desires  to  live  a  spiritual  life, 
he  should  be  assisted  to  gain  skill  to  live  it. 

Some   methods   of   control    have  been   worked   out   by 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  23 

the  race  and  stored  in  books;  others  are  handed  down  by 
oral  tradition;  other  methods  are  in  constant  practical 
use  as  tools  and  instruments.  Some  the  race  has  not  yet 
worked  out. 

SECTION   5.     ASSISTANCE  OF   PUPILS 

The  problem  of  assisting-  pupils  depends  for  solution  upon 
two  factors :  First,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  as  carefully  as 
possible  (i)  the  ways  in  which  the  child  mirid  acts  in  se- 
curing control,  and  (2)  the  subjective  values  that  are  resi- 
dent in  children.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  a  start- 
ing point  in  teaching  and  to  develop  methods  of  presenta- 
tion. For,  obviously,  the  more  nearly  we  ascertain  the  con- 
tent of  the  child's  mind  and  his  methods  of  working,  the 
less  waste  will  be  necessary  in  teaching.  Second,  we  must 
know  what  values  are  most  highly  appreciated  by  society 
and  what  methods  of  control  it  has  worked  out  through 
the  ages,  so  that  we  can  interpret  and  guide  the  child,  thus 
making  him  efficient  by  having  him  adopt  values  and 
methods  of  control  that  the  race  is  already  using.1 

Problems  Outlined. — In  analyzing  the  process  of  teach- 
ing from  the  point  of  view  described  in  this  chapter,  we 
shall  discuss  four  leading  topics: 

1.  Subject-matter;   i.   e.,   the   methods   of   control   that 
the  race  and  the  child  have  worked  out. 

2.  Motive;  the  "motors"  that  generate  and  direct  activ- 
ity along  specific  and  intended  lines. 

3.  Development;  the  methods  by  which  the  child  gets 
control  of  values  and  increases  or  changes  his  appreciation 
of  them. 

4.  Use   of   subject-matter,   once   control   has   been   de- 
veloped. 

1  Dewey,  The  Child  and  the  Curriculum,  pp.  14-18. 


24  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

REFERENCES   FOR   CLASS   READING 

Bagley,  Educational  Values,  pp.  107-116. 
O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  pp.  60-98. 
Ruediger,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  102-116. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Collect  the  aims  of  education  as  found  in  the  index 
of  Monroe's  History  of  Education  under  the  caption  "Aims 
of  Education."    Show  that  each  is  a  value.    Show  also  that 
some  of  them  were  good  aims  for  the  age  in  which  they 
were  formulated. 

2.  What   is   in  your  opinion   the  most  important   aim 
of  education   for  this  generation?     State  others  that  are 
secondary  and  justify  your  choice  of  the  most  important. 

3.  What  values  do  each  of  the  virtues  quoted   from 
Hyde  assist  us  to  control? 

4.  What  values  do  each  of  the  instincts  quoted  from 
Angell  assist  us  to  control? 

5.  Give  five  examples  of  valuable  methods  of  satisfy- 
ing needs ;  five  of  valuable  solutions  of  problems. 

6.  Name  the  five  most  valuable  interests  in  your  own 
experience;    in   the    experience   of   a   twelve-year-old   boy 
of  your  acquaintance ;  in  the  experience  of  a  twelve-year-old 
girl  of  your  acquaintance. 

7.  Give  three  illustrations  demonstrating  that  routine 
possesses  some  felt  value,  if  it  is  performed  at  all. 

8.  Give  five  examples  showing  the  distinction  between 
subjective  values  and  objective  values,  and  state  how  you 
might  make  these  objective  values  subjective. 

9.  Give  five  examples  showing  the  distinction  between 
knowing  about  a  value  and  feeling  the  value.  . 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  TEACHING  25 

10.  Give  five  examples  of  values  you  appreciate  but 
cannot  control. 

n.  Give  five  examples  of  individuals  whose  lives  have 
been  dominated  by  some  one  value  or  closely  coherent 
group  of  values.  Outline  the  histories  of  the  lives,  noting 
what  each  did  to  control  his  value. 


CHAPTER    II 

SUBJECT-MATTERi 

In  pedagogical  literature  no  adequate  expression  of  the 
exact  place  of  subject-matter  in  the  teaching  process  has 
been  given.  To  the  writer,  the  function  of  teaching  stated 
above  (the  assisting  of  pupils  to  appreciate  and  control  the 
values  of  life),  seems  to  give  it  a  definite  and  useful  place 
in  a  system  of  methods  of  teaching.  In  endeavoring  to 
show  this  place,  the  following  topics  will  be  discussed :  ( i ) 
the  origin  of  subject-matter,  (2)  a  definition  of  subject- 
matter,  and  (3)  pedagogical  applications. 

SECTION  i.    CONDITIONS  UNDER  WHICH  SUBJECT-MATTER  ORIGINATES 

New  subject-matter  is  formed  when  difficulties  which 
cannot  be  handled1  by  subject-matter  already  formed,  are 
met.  Or,  in  other  words,  it  is  created  in  response  to  some 
need. 

This  holds  true  of  the  ancient  first  beginnings  of  subject- 
matter.  For  instance,  it  is  commonly  held  that  botany  had 
its  early  beginning  in  sickness  and  disease,  for  whose  cure 
the  tribal  women  collected  herbs  and  studied  them.  Th.2 
science  of  chemistry  sprang  from  alchemy  through  the 
desire  of  men  to  find  a  rapid  means  of  changing  the  baser 
metals  into  gold.  When  the  Nile  swept  away  the  "line 

1  It  is  suggested  that  a  reader,  reading  this  text  for  the  first  time, 
read  Chapter  8  and  following  chapters  before  reading  Chapters  2-7. 
These  latter  were  for  logical  reasons  inserted  where  they  are,  but 
the  easiest  order  in  which  to  read  them  is  that  just  specified. 

26 


SUBJECT-MATTER  27 

fences"  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  every  year,  geometry  was 
invented  to  determine  the  boundaries  of  sections  of  land. 
Astronomy  in  the  form  of  astrology,  probably,  began  in 
an  effort  to  foretell  disasters  and  good  fortune. 

School  Subjects. — Not  only  did  subject-matter  begin 
in  ancient  times  when  a  need  for  it  was  felt,  but  today 
new  subject-matter  is  created  under  similar  conditions. 
For  instance,  all  school  subjects  begin  in  this  manner. 
Systems  of  bookkeeping  are  originated  when  business  grows 
so  large  that  a  systematic  record  of  transactions  must  be 
kept,  or  when,  if  not  kept,  confusion  results.  Writing  orig- 
inates when  people  are  separated  and  cannot  keep  in  touch 
with  each  other,  or  when  one  with  a  poor  memory  finds 
that  something  he  wished  to  use  has  been  forgotten.  New 
styles  of  writing  are  originated  when  old  styles  prove  in- 
adequate. The  reader  is  undoubtedly  able  to  remember  how 
vigorous  criticism  against  the  Spencerian  system  gave  rise 
to  vertical  writing  and  how  later  criticism  of  vertical  writ- 
ing gave  rise  to  the  semi-slant  and  other  forms.  Manual 
training  originated  in  the  schools  because  it  was  felt  by 
some  that  the  motor  training  of  pupils  was  being  neglected, 
and  by  others  that  pupils  were  not  receiving  a  training  for 
industrial  life. 

Facts. — Facts  within  subjects  originate  in  like  manner. 
As  we  use  a  subject  we  find  places  in  which  it  does  not 
work.  This  sets  us  to  improving  it — that  is,  it  sets  us  to 
rinding  new  subject-matter.  The  little  child's  first  sentence 
is  a  single  word— "Daddy,"  "hat,"  "hurt."  But  when  the 
mother  says  "What  hurts?"  the  child  says  "Finger  hurts," 
because  the  single  word  "hurt"  is  inadequate.  Thus  he  re- 
invents the  subject  and  predicate.  Again,  when  the  child 
says  "Kiss  finger"  and  the  mother  kisses  her  own  finger, 
the  baby  says  "Kiss  baby's  finger,"  and  the  adjective  idea  is 


28  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

utilized  by  the  child  because  the  failure  to  use  the  adjective 
does  not  bring  the  coveted  satisfaction.  Tense  forms,  case, 
number,  comparison  of  adjectives,  all  grammatical  forms 
with  few  exceptions  were  and  are  differentiated  under  the 
stimulus  of  inability  to  otherwise  secure  exactness  in  com- 
munication. 

In  all  these  cases  it  can  be  easily  seen  that  some  need,  or 
problem,  some  breakdown  or  difficulty,  set  men  to  work 
creating  new  subject-matters.  In  other  words,  if  one  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  methods  by  which  a  thing  of  value  is  con- 
trolled, a  new  method  is  attempted. 

No  Dissatisfaction,  No  Subject-Matter. — On  the  nega- 
tive side,  new  subject-matter  will  not  originate  if  there  is 
no  dissatisfaction,  problem,  or  need.  As  long  as  accounts 
can  be  kept  in  one's  head,  there  will  be  no  system  of  book- 
keeping. If  people  are  not  separated  they  will  not  write 
to  each  other.  If  old  styles  of  writing  are  satisfactory  no 
new  style  will  be  invented.  If  motor  training  is  taken 
care  of  manual  training  need  not  be  introduced.  If  people 
had  not  grown  sick  there  would  have  been  no  study  of  herbs 
for  the  purpose  of  cure.  If  men  had  not  wanted  to  make 
money  quickly,  alchemy  might  not  have  been  begun.  If 
future  events  had  been  known,  there  would  have  been  no 
astrology. 

We  might  have  had  botany,  chemistry,  or  astronomy 
originated  for  other  purposes ;  but  whatever  the  purpose, 
it  would  have  originated  because  of  some  need,  problem,  or 
difficulty,  and  if  there  had  been  none  such,  there  would  have 
been  no  subject-matter. 

Old  and  New  Subject-Matter. — If  we  have  never  ex- 
perienced the  need,  problem,  or  difficulty  before,  we  make 
new  subject-matter  to  handle  the  situation.  Every  new 
difficulty  requires  a  new  way  of  meeting  it;  every  new 


SUBJECT-MATTER  29 

problem  requires  a  new  solution;  and  every  new  need 
requires  new  methods  of  satisfaction.  The  aeroplane  is  a 
new  way  of  handling  a  hitherto  unsolved  problem ;  the 
paper  clip  is  a  new  way  of  satisfying  a  need  not  previously 
satisfied  so  well ;  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  is  a 
modern  method  of  handling  difficulties  arising  from  monopo- 
listic avarice. 

If  the  need,  problem,  or  difficulty  is  new  to  us,  but  has 
been  successfully  coped  with  by  others,  we  may  accept  the 
subject-matter  which  they  have  provided,  as  when  to  get 
light  we  turn  a  switch,  to  get  butter  we  visit  the  grocer,  or 
to  cure  a  disease  we  call  the  doctor. 

If  the  need,  problem,  or  difficulty  has  arisen  at  an  earlier 
time  in  our  own  experience  and  has  been  controlled  by  us 
before,  we  use  the  same  subject-matter  as  on  the  earlier 
occasion.  If  we  meet  it  frequently  the  subject-matter  be- 
comes a  habit ;  if  the  race  has  handled  it  from  the  beginning 
it  becomes  instinct  and  reflex. 

But  in  all  these  cases  the  important  point  is  that  new 
subject-matter  is  not  created  or  old  subject-matter  used 
again  except  after  some  need,  problem,  or  difficulty  has 
arisen. 

A  few  examples  will  make  this  clear.  For  instance,  in  a 
primary  cooking  lesson  there  arises  a  necessity  for  rather 
definite  measurements.  Thus  a  need  for  arithmetic  is  felt 
which  cannot  be  satisfied  in  cooking  and  is  carried  over  to 
the  arithmetic  class,  where  the  pupils  discover  the  new 
way  of  acting.  Now,  of  course,  the  race  had  worked  out 
an  arithmetical  system  a  long  time  ago,  but  to  these  little 
children  arithmetic  is  as  novel  as  if  it  were  an  original 
discovery.  That  the  race  had  already  worked  it  out  for 
them  is  merely  a  lucky  accident.  A  boy  learns  local  geogra- 
phy by  searching  for  a  bee-tree,  a  bird's  nest,  or  a  swim- 


30  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ming-hole.  Somebody  has  told  him  there  is  one.  He 
wants  to  find  it  but  has  no  definite  directions.  He  feels 
the  need  for  such  directions  and  proceeds  to  get  them  for 
himself  by  inquiry,  by  discovery,  or  by  a  combination  of 
both. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  typical  school  of  modern  times 
designates  definitely  what  subject-matter  is  to  be  studied  on 
the  basis  of  what  will  be  of  use  in  later  life  and  leaves  the 
teacher  to  his  own  devices  in  creating  real  and  often,  of 
necessity,  fictitious  needs  for  it  in  the  pupils'  minds.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  few  experiments  now  being  carried 
on,  mention  of  which  is  made  later  in  the  text,  will  so 
spread  in  influence  that  the  typical  school  taught  by  the 
average  teacher  will  be  changed  in  its  point  of  view  and 
begin  with  the  immediate,  active  and  potential  needs  of  the 
children.  For  the  present,  however,  the  individual  teacher 
in  the  typical  system  has  to  do  his  best  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples to  the  order  of  things  as  they  are,  while  hoping, 
by  a  process  of  evolution,  to  bring  about  a  change  to  the 
other  point  of  view. 

SECTION  2.     SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  ACTION 

Subject-Matter,  Not  Books. — Books  and  subject-mat- 
ter are  not  synonymous;  for  the  extent  of  subject-matter 
cannot  be  compressed  into  the  proportions  of  a  text.  So 
vast  is  it  that  to  catalogue  the  subject-matter  of  one  five- 
year-old  fraction  of  humanity  would  consume  a  five-foot 
shelf  of  quarto  volumes.  To  record  all  subject-matter  of 
all  peoples  in  books  would  be  as  hopeless  as  to  empty  the 
ocean  with  a  bowl.  This  anyone  can  see  for  himself  by 
recalling  that  what  he  writes  is  but  a  meager  outline  of  all 
that  he  has  thought  of  while  writing;  that  he  writes  sel- 
dom; and  that  only  an  infinitesimal  fraction  of  the  people 


SUBJECT-MATTER  3! 

of  the  world  put  upon  paper  the  smallest  fraction  of  what 
they  think,  feel,  and  do. 

A  book  is  written  by  one  who  wishes  to  convey  his  sub- 
ject-matter to  his  readers,  and  thus  it  is,  strictly  speaking, 
a  set  of  symbols  which  has  no  meaning  apart  from  his 
experience  and  theirs.  It  merely  describes,  relates,  or  ex- 
plains it,  but  is  subject-matter  in  no  essential  sense.  Like 
all  records,  a  book  is  lifeless,  inert  and  useless,  except  as 
a  guide  or  stimulus  to  the  formation  of  subject-matter. 

Subject-Matter  Is  Mental. — To  find  subject-matter  we 
have  to  look  into  the  experiences  of  individuals.  History 
is  contained  in  the  minds  of  people.  Records  and  monu- 
ments of  history  are  found  scattered  over  the  landscape 
and  in  libraries,  but  they  are  not  history.  They  are  guides 
for  people  who  see,  interpret,  and  use  them  to  build  up 
within  themselves  images  of  the  events  they  stand  for. 
Botany  is  mental.  A  plant  by  itself  apart  from  human 
beings  would  not  be  botany.  The  contact  of  human  beings 
with  plants  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  that  there  be 
a  science  of  botany.  Geography  is  also  resident  within 
individuals.  Books  on  -geography  are  merely  aids  which 
assist  pupils  to  build  up  the  subject-matter  of  geography 
inside  themselves.  Little  Jack  Horner's  experiences  live 
only  in  people.  Outside  of  people,  all  that  we  can  find  are 
some  letters  and  pictures  which  in  themselves  are  dead, 
the  mere  material  incantations  by  which  the  famous  pie- 
eater  may  be  brought  to  life  in  the  mind  of  every  reader. 
Shakespeare's  tragedies  live  in  people.  The  plays  of 
Shakespeare  can  only  in  the  crudest  sense  be  said  to  be 
found  in  books.  Once  upon  a  time  they  lived  in  the 
experience  of  the  author,  who  put  certain  signs  on  paper, 
the  records  of  his  feelings,  so  that  other  individuals  using 
these  signs  and  records  might  interpret  them,  and  to  a 


32  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

greater  or  less  degree  re-live  the  experience  of  the  writer, 
re-experience  the  tragedies  and  bring  them  to  life  again. 

Pedagogical  Application. — Books  can  be  seen  and  their 
information  can  be  made  definite,  but  the  content  of  pupils' 
minds  is  elusive  and  shut  in  behind  docile  muscular  actions. 
Therefore,  it  is  easy  for  the  teacher  to  know  books,  but 
hard  for  him  to  know  pupils.  When  he  teaches  geography 
he  may  mean  that  he  is  teaching  the  text-book.  But  so 
far  as  the  triangle  of  text,  teacher,  and  pupil  is  concerned, 
geography  lives  only  in  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  and  the 
text  is  a  convenient  guide  for  directing  the  life  of  geogra- 
phy inside. 

It  is  a  prime  essential,  therefore,  that  when  pupils  are 
taught,  this  fact  be  kept  always  in  mind.  And  therefrom  it 
will  follow  that  the  teacher  must  keep  his  mental  eye  upon 
the  state  of  the  subject-matter  in  the  pupil's  mind.  He  must 
watch  it  grow  and  upon  the  basis  of  that  growth,  rather 
than  upon  the  number  of  pages  covered,  judge  the  progress 
of  his  work. 

A  teacher  who,  before  beginning  a  subject  or  a  topic, 
takes  the  time  to  tabulate  how  much  the  pupils  know  and 
feel  about  it,  and  how  much  they  can  do  with  it  before  be- 
ginning to  study  it,  will  save  time.  This  was  brought  home 
to  me  in  an  interesting  way  by  a  superintendent  of  wide 
experience  and  good  professional  training,  who  stated  that 
when  he  began  his  systematic  addition  work  in  the  lower 
grades,  after  considerable  incidental  work  he  used  no  ob- 
jects, merely  putting  on  the  board  simple  problems  in 
addition,  as 

765 
134 

Tie  had   reverted  to  the  old  methods  of  our  forefathers. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  33 

At  first  thought  it  seemed  that  he  was  a  reactionary,  but 
on  second  thought  he  seems  to  be  progressive,  because,  as 
he  explained,  every  eight-year-old  boy  in  the  small  towns 
of  the  Middle  West  knows  enough  about  small  numbers 
to  do  without  the  objects  in  using  them.  Yet,  if  one  did 
not  observe  pupils  he  might  keep  extravagantly  inadequate 
ideas  about  the  infantile  powerlessness  of  pupils  in  school 
and  waste  time  and  energy  in  teaching  what  the  children 
already  have. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  canvass  of  what  the  pupils  know 
about  subjects  saves  time  by  showing  how  little  they  some- 
times have.  This  is  well  brought  out  by  a  series  of  ques- 
tions asked  of  a  class  about  to  begin  the  study  of  physical 
geography  in  the  high  school.  They  had  previously  studied 
elementary  geography,  but  out  of  41  pupils  answering,  16 
did  not  have  any  clear  idea  of  longitude;  9  did  not  know 
where  water  vapor  comes  from;  9  did  not  know  which  is 
the  east  side  of  the  map;  21  thought  the  sun  goes  on  fhe 
other  side  of  the  earth  at  night;  19  did  not  know  what  is 
meant  by  the  axis  of  the  earth,  one  stating  that  it  is  the 
imaginary  frame  upon  which  the  earth  turns;  10  did  not 
know  of  what  coal  is  made;  13  did  not  know  that  thunder 
and  lightning  occur  together,  one  of  these  believing  that 
"thunder  comes  before  lightning  as  a  warning,  for  the 
lightning  does  the  harm";  and  29  knew  of  no  relationship 
between  the  tides  and  the  moon. 

Time  is,  therefore,  saved  and,  in  addition,  as  will  be 
shown  in  its  proper  place,  the  laws  of  apperception  will  be 
obeyed  to  the  benefit  of  the  teaching  process  by  as  close  and 
careful  examination  of  the  state  of  the  subject  in  the  pupils' 
minds  as  the  difficulties  of  the  problem  will  permit. 

Ways  of  Acting. — This  subject-matter  in  people  is,  in 
the  last  analysis,  a  way  of  acting.  Every  person  is  all  the 


34  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

time  seeking  to  control  values.  But  in  order  to  control  them 
some  sort  of  action  is  necessary,  and  this  action  is  subject- 
matter.  Bluntly  speaking,  this  means  that  geography  and 
history,  arithmetic,  literature,  art,  and  physics  are  ways  of 
acting.  The  following  observations  will  make  clear  the 
seemingly  far-fetched  connection  between  subject-matter 
and  action. 

(1)  Action  includes  more  than  muscular  action.     It  in- 
cludes all  phases  of  experience.     Physical  activity  is  one 
form,  intellectual  activity  is  another  form.     Morality  and 
religion   are,   also,   activities.     Emotion   is   another    form. 
There  are,  also,  aesthetic  and  social  forms  of  activity. 
Experience    and    consciousness    are    essentially    forms    of 
activity. 

Subject-matter  as  a  way  of  acting  may  thus  be  analyzed 
so  as  to  be  called  a  way  of  thinking,  of  feeling,  -and  of 
acting  with  the  body.  And  this  helps  to  make  the  idea 
clearer  because  it  is  easy  to  see  that  geography  is  a  way  of 
thinking  about  the  earth's  surface.  Crossing  the  Bar  is  a 
way  of  feeling  and  thinking  about  death.  The  Ten  Com- 
mandments are  ways  of  governing  our  moral  actions.  So- 
cial customs  are  methods  of  acting  toward  other  people, 
of  feeling  toward  them  or  of  thinking  about  them. 

(2)  Living  organisms  are  constantly  endeavoring  to  ad- 
just themselves  to  their  environment,  and  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  to  adjust  their  environment  to  meet  their  needs.1 
Houses,    clothes,    cooking,    milling,    railroads,    carpentry, 
writing,  matches,  and  carriages  are  all  methods  of  adjust- 
ment.    In  fact,  everything  done  by  men,  is  done  in  order 
to  make  adjustment  more  complete. 

These  methods  of  adjustment  constitute  subject-matter. 

1  O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  pp.  76-98. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  35 

It  consists  in  the  ways  of  thinking,  feeling,  and  acting  that 
are  worked  out  in  the  attempt  to  make  appropriate  adjust- 
ments. In  getting  control  of  the  place  of  things  man  has 
worked  out  geography;  to  handle  quantity  he  has  worked 
out  arithmetic;  to  control  force  he  has  developed  physics, 
and  to  control  beauty  in  his  environment  he  has  developed 
art. 

(3)  Among  animals  and  infants,  control  is  largely  mus- 
cular. But  as  intellectual  development  occurs,  the  child 
works  out  his  controls  with  increasing  assistance  from  the 
intellect,  and  adds  to  his  list  of  primitive  values  the  more 
subtle  and  refined  values  of  the  civilization  by  which  he 
is  saturated.  Ideas,  facts,  principles  come  to  his  assistance 
and  control  of  values  becomes  a  much  more  comprehensive 
thing  than  the  earlier  muscular  control  of  infancy. 

Children's  Meanings. — Yet,  up  to  a  relatively  late  date 
in  childhood,  ideas  are  still  surcharged  with  muscular  activ- 
ity. This  is  brought  out  in  an  interesting  way  by  the 
following  oft-quoted  illustration  secured  from  another 
source  by  Chamberlain. 

A  boy  ten  years  of  age  gave  the  following  definitions, 
which,  it  will  be  observed,  are  nearly  all  in  terms  of  action : 

Kiss  is  if  you  hug  and  kiss  somebody. 

Mast  is  what  holds  the  sail  up  top  of  a  ship. 

Milk  is  something  like  cream. 

Nail  is  something  to  put  things  together. 

Nut  is  something  with  a  shell  good  to  eat. 

Open  is  if  the  door  is  not  closed. 

Opera  is   a  house  where  you   see  men  and  ladies 
act. 

Pickle  is  something  green  to  eat. 

Quarrel  is  if  you  began  a  little  fight. 


36  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Ring  is  what  you  wear  on  your  finger. 

Saw  is>  if  you  see  something,  after  you  see  it  you 

saw  it. 
Vain  is  if  you  always  look  in  the  glass.1 

When  children  grow  older  they  work  in  the  field  of  non- 
muscular  activity  to  a  greater  extent.  But,  even  so,  they 
are  still  acting,  constantly  making  adjustments  and  con- 
trolling values.  In  doing  this,  they  need  and  use  all  kinds 
of  subject-matter  and  the  important  principle  to  be  con- 
stantly utilized  is  that  subject-matter  essentially  consists  in 
ways  of  acting  worked  out  by  some  one  and  utilized  by  the 
children.  To  assist  in  applying  and  utilizing  this  principle 
the  following  illustrations  may  be  of  service. 

Illustrations  from  Literature. — Tennyson's  Crossing  the 
Bar  is  a  way  of  thinking  and  feeling  about  death.  With 
this  may  be  contrasted  another  way  as  presented  to  us  in 
Browning's  Prospice;  or,  still  another,  that  portrayed  by 
Bryant  in  An  Old  Man's  Funeral.  The  Lord's  Prayer  is 
a  way  of  expressing  veneration  and  worship  for  a  loving 
but  all  powerful  God.  Now  I  Lay  Me- Down  to  Sleep  is 
a  method  of  asking  in  simple  language  for  the  care  of 
God  through  the  night.  Excelsior  is  a  way  of  viewing 
unconquerable  aspirations.  Macbeth  is  a  way  of  thinking 
and  feeling  about  the  progress  of  unfettered  ambition. 
Hamlet  is  a  way  of  thinking  and  feeling  about  a  life  of 
indecision.  Job  is  a  way  of  thinking  and  feeling  about  the 
significance  of  suffering.  Every  unit  of  poetry  or  prose  is 
a  way  of  thinking,  feeling,  or  acting  about  something. 

Illustrations  from  Arithmetic. — Multiplication  is  a 
short  way  of  adding,  as  division  is  a  short  way  of  sub- 
tracting. Promissory  notes  are  methods  or  ways  of  keep- 

1  Chamberlain,  The  Child:  A  Study  in  the  Evolution  of  Man,  pp. 
146-7,  quoting  from  Wolff,  Boy's  Dictionary. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  37 

ing  permanent  records  of  loans,  and  receipts  are  ways  of 
keeping  permanent  records  of  commodities  delivered. 
Common  or  decimal  fractions  are  different  ways  of  han- 
dling units  smaller  than  the  whole.  Multiplication  tables 
are  ways  of  making  easy  the  learning  of  facts  of  multipli- 
cation. Denominate  numbers  are  ways  of  handling  concrete 
measures.  Percentage  is  a  way  of  handling  quantities 
upon  a  basis  of  100,  and  the  decimal  system  is  one  more  or 
less  convenient  way  of  recording  quantity.  So,  also,  we 
see  that  every  arithmetical  process  is  a  way  of  acting. 

Illustrations  from  Sociology. — It  may  seem  that  an 
institution  is  not  a  way  of  acting.  But  to  show  that  it  may 
be  viewed  in  that  light  let  us  consider  some  examples.  In 
Presbyterianism,  for  instance,  we  have  without  question  a 
very  definite  way  of  acting.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago  the  supporters  of  Presbyterianism  thought  their  re- 
ligious thoughts  and  lived  their  religious  lives  after  a 
fashion  more  or  less  peculiar  to  themselves.  These  thoughts 
and  principles  of  living  they  put  at  that  time  into  the  form 
of  a  creed,  which  is  essentially  a  handy  device  by  which 
to  teach  Presbyterians  how  to  think  and  act  upon  certain 
matters.  Again,  the  republican  form  of  government  is  one 
way  in  which  a  group  of  people  may  act  in  governmental 
matters.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  formu- 
lated so  that  the  people  might  know  how  they  should  act  in 
certain  situations.  Courts  have  been  established  to  inter- 
pret these  rules,  and  to  advise  individuals  when  doubt 
arises  as  to  whether  they  have  or  have  not  acted  according 
to  the  rules  laid  down. 

Illustrations  from  Psychology. — An  instinct  is  a  way 
of  acting  which  is  bequeathed  to  the  individual  at  his  birth. 
A  habit  is  a  way  of  acting  which  the  individual  has  worked 
out  for  himself  and  retains.  Memory  is  a  way  in  which 


69959 


38  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  intellect  acts  in  situations  similar  to  others  previously 
acted  upon.  Reasoning  is  a  way  in  which  the  intellect  acts 
in  the  presence  of  circumstances  requiring  a  new  organiza- 
tion of  experience.  Emotion  is  not  only  a  form  of  mental 
action  but  also  a  mode  of  organic  action. 

Pedagogical  Applications. — Subject-matter  is  not 
something  to  be  stored  in  the  mind.  It  must  be  turned 
over  into  action,  with  the  purpose  of  modifying  conduct. 
Useless  subject-matter  clogs  the  stream  of  life,  it  litters  the 
workshops  of  experience,  it  is  nauseating  to  pupils,  and 
degenerates  educational  practice.  Among  the  many  things 
that  may  be  taught  only  those  should  be  taught  which 
will  be  of  importance  in  solving  the  problems  and  satisfying 
the  real  needs  of  pupils. 

To  make  the  point  of  view  of  the  text  more  emphatic  at 
the  outset,  a  few  reiterations  of  the  conditions  under  which 
subject-matter  originates  in  the  minds  of  pupils  must  be 
made.  Crossing  the  Bar  will  be  of  little  use  for  study  till 
pupils  have  felt  the  problem  underlying  it.  At  an  earlier 
time  it  is  so  much  "emotional  Greek."  Bryant's  The  Plant- 
ing of  the  Apple  Tree,  Tennyson's  The  Brook,  Alice  Gary's 
True  Worth  Is  In  Being,  Not  Seeming,  are  all  perpetrated 
on  nine-year-old  boys  and  girls  in  a  prominent  state  course 
of  study.  Much  of  the  miscalled  children's  poetry  is  use- 
less to  children,  for  the  feelings  it  expresses  are  often 
those  of  an  adult,  and  the  only  claim  it  has  to  the  name  of 
children's  poetry  is  that  it  is  about  children.  Field's 
Little  Boy  Blue  is  of  this  sort,  and  if  I  were  sure  of  pro- 
tection from  violence,  I  would  suggest  that  The  Children's 
Hour  and  The  Village  Blacksmith  are  not  suitable  for 
ten-year-old  girls  and  boys. 

The  multiplication  tables  should  come  in  only  after  expert 


SUBJECT-MATTER  39 

use  of  addition  because  when  the  pupils  have  become  ex- 
perts in  adding  they  will  appreciate  short  cuts.  Here  again 
many  schools  make  a  mistake  in  beginning  systematic  arith- 
metic in  the  first  grade.  It  should  be  left  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  grade.  Previous  to  that  time  it  will  take 
care  of  itself,  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  hand  work 
of  the  three  first  grades.  But  in  the  fourth  grade  the 
pupils  are  old  enough  to  feel  a  need  for  systematic  addi- 
tion. And  instead  of  teaching  all  the  operations  together 
we  should  revert  to  the  plan  of  the  old  arithmetic  in  giving 
addition  first,  to  be  followed  by  subtraction  or  multiplica- 
tion. By  this  method  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  see  the  pur- 
pose of  multiplication  in  shortening  addition.  Denominate 
numbers  can  be  introduced  through  the  need  for  them  only 
in  occupational  work  which  makes  their  use  necessary. 
And  as  the  schools  learn  to  do  more  and  more  of  this 
work  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  will  become  more  and 
more  efficient,  since  the  purposes  of  the  operations  will  be 
made  evident. 

The  same  is  true  of  tools.  We  learn  to  use  the  hammer 
when  we  need  to  drive  nails.  We  learn  the  signs  on  the 
face  of  the  clock  when  we  feel  the  need  of  telling  time. 
Children  in  school  can  learn  much  of  this,  incidentally,  if 
when  a  clock  is  kept  in  the  room  the  little  folk  are  told 
to  let  the  teacher  know  when  their  class  should  begin  or 
when  recess  begins  or  is  over.  This  will  form  an  excellent 
situation  in  which  the  Roman  numerals,  and  counting  by 
fives  to  sixty,  can  be  taught  under  the  stimulus  of  a  strong 
motive.  An  inkstand  is  made,  purchased  or  acquired  by 
children  when  they  find  that  their  fingers  get  dirty  as  the 
pen  runs  up  and  down  the  ink-bottle  neck,  or  when  some 
other  disability  occurs.  A  habit  is  not  broken  until  it  is 


40  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

found  to  be  unsatisfactory.  A  habit  is  formed  when  the 
need  for  an  action  occurs  again  and  again.  Children  reason 
when  habit  will  not  handle  a  case. 

In  every  case  "new"  subject-matter  is  taken  on  normally 
by  the  child  when  he  feels  a  need  for  it.  To  teach  it  when 
the  specific  need  for  it  is  not  felt  may  produce  some  good, 
but  is  highly  wasteful  and  inefficient. 

EXERCISES 

1.  State  in  a  general  way   the  origin  of  printing,   of 
fly-paper,  the  school,  Tungsten  electric  light  bulbs,  drilled 
wells,  anti-toxins,  furnaces  for  houses,  concrete  sidewalks, 
rebating  by  railroads,  mail  order  houses,  refrigerators. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  ten  kitchen  utensils  and  state  what 
need  they  satisfy.     State  what  would  be  the  difficulties  in 
kitchen  work  if  these  were  not  used. 

3.  Give  ten  illustrations  showing  that  when  people  feel 
no  dissatisfaction  with  old  things   they  will  not  take  on 
innovations. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  conservative  and 
the  progressive  type  of  mind? 

5.  Is  it  possible  for  any  two  people  to  have  exactly  the 
same  geography  subject-matter?     Why? 

6.  Take  a  child  of  six  years  of  age  who  has  not  yet 
entered  school  and  try  to  catalogue  all  he  knows  about 
arithmetic.      Test   his   knowledge  of   counting;   give   con- 
crete problems  to  find  how  much  he  can  add  and  subtract, 
multiply  and  divide,  and  what  he  knows  of  positions  and 
denominate  numbers. 

7.  Work  out  in  class  a  series  of  tests  to  determine  what 
a   class   beginning  algebra   can   do   with   the   arithmetical 
processes    involved    in   the    subject.     Test    for    speed    and 
accuracy,  for  drill  work  and  thinking. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  41 

8.  Work  out  in  class  tests  for  determining  how  much 
an  elementary  school  class  beginning  the  systematic  study 
of  American  or  English  history  for  the  first  time  knows 
about  the  chief  characters  in  the  subject.     Find  out  in  this 
connection  what  of  this  has  been  taken  up  as  a  part  of  the 
school  course  in  the  earlier  grades. 

9.  Show  that  the  following  are  ways  of  thinking,  feel- 
ing, and  physical  action:  Politeness,  religion,  the  apprecia- 
tion of  a  beautiful  picture  or  melody,  love  for  one's  mother, 
meeting  a  friend  in  a  strange  city,  Latin  verbs. 


CHAPTER    III 

DISTINCTIONS  IN  THE  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION 

SECTION  i.     INTRODUCTORY 

The  function  of  subject-matter  has  been  implied  in  the 
discussion  of  the  first  and  second  sections  of  the  foregoing 
chapter.  Subject-matter  originates  when  some  need,  prob- 
lem, dissatisfaction  or  difficulty  occurs.  It  is  a  way  of 
acting  in  the  attempt  to  satisfy  needs,  solve  problems,  re- 
move dissatisfactions  and  overcome  difficulties.  Its  func- 
tion, then,  is  to  solve  problems,  satisfy  needs  and  overcome 
difficulties.  Or,  in  terms  of  the  function  of  teaching,  we 
may  say  that  its  function  is  to  give  us  appreciation  and 
control  of  values.  For,  when  we  fail  to  control  values,  a 
problem  or  need  arises,  and  subject-matter,  by  solving  the 
problem  or  satisfying  the  need,  gives  us  the  desired  control. 

However,  text-books  on  the  teaching  of  subjects  do  not 
always  apply  this  principle  with  clear-cut  definiteness.  For, 
as  we  shall  see,  much  of  present  teaching  is  dominated  by 
the  principle  of  formal  discipline,  and  little  attention  is 
paid  directly  to  the  specific  problems  and  needs  which  each 
unit  of  subject-matter  is  supposed  to  control. 

Certain  distinctions  will  be  made  in  the  current  inexact 
use  of  the  conception  of  function.  For  this  purpose  two 
typical  examples  will  be  taken  from  current  texts  wherein 
the  function  of  subject-matter  is  discussed  under  the  term 
"value  of  subject-matter."  Bourne  in  his  text-book  on 

42 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION 


43 


The  Teaching  of  History1  gives  the  following  as  the  values 
or  function  of  history: 

1.  It  interprets  the  world  to  the  child. 

2.  It  can  make  a  direct  appeal  to  interests  which  the  pupil 

already  possesses. 

3.  It  has  a  moral  value. 

4.  It  should  help  to  produce  an  enlightened  patriotism. 

5.  It  develops  a  love  of  truth,  judgment,  imagination  and 

historical-mindedness. 

6.  It  brings  added  pleasure  within  the  reach  of  the  pupil — 

pleasure  in  the  study  of  history  as  history. 
Smith,  in  The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,   gives 
the  following  as  reasons  for  studying  science : 

1.  It  trains  in  observation,  comparison  and  induction,  in 

imagination,  and  in  self-elimination. 

2.  Its  information  possesses  value. 

SECTION  2.     INTRINSIC  AND  INDIRECT  FUNCTIONS 

Subject-matter  is  used  by  the  race  and  by  the  school. 
Presumably  it  would  be  used  by  the  people  whether  there 
were  schools  or  not ;  for  schools  are  of  recent  develop- 
ment and  subject-matter  has  been  in  use  since  the  beginning. 
The  school  uses  the  methods  the  race  has  worked  out  for 
solving  its  problems,  but,  in  addition,  it  sees  in  the  operations 
of  education  an  opportunity  for  controlling,  by  the  use  of 
subject-matter,  a  number  of  problems  that  the  race  does 
not  have  in  mind.  As*  Smith  says,  science  "trains  in 
observation,  comparison  and  induction,  in  imagination,  and 
in  self-elimination."  But,  obviously,  science  was  not 
created  and  is  not  used  in  racial  economy  outside  of 
school — is  not,  in  short,  studied  by  scientists — for  any  such 

1  Pp.  77-92. 

2  Smith  &  Hall,  The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  pp.  9-15- 


44  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

purpose.  No  scientist  will  spend  years  on  his  subject  in 
order  to  train  his  imagination,  or  his  powers  of  induction 
and  comparison.  He  has  something  more  vital  to  occupy 
his  attention — the  solution  of  certain  problems  of  the 
science.  As  a  result  of  his  study  he  may  indirectly  secure 
training  in  these  powers;  but  his  mind  is  on  his  problems. 

Subject-matter  has  both  a  primitive  and  a  modern  func- 
tion. In  other  words,  it  may  have  been  created  for  one 
purpose  and  be  now  used  for  another  purpose.  Botany, 
chemistry,  astronomy,  geometry,  are  a  few  examples  of 
subjects  whose  function  has  changed  between  primitive  and 
modern  times.  But  in  the  main  the  function  of  subject- 
matter  has  remained  the  same,  the  chief  differences  being 
those  of  detail.  For  school  purposes  the  modern  function 
is  the  important  one,  and  the  primitive  function  is  chiefly 
of  historical  value.  Teachers  are  concerned  with  teaching 
children  the  uses  made  of  subject-matter  by  the  generation 
in  which  they  are  being  educated. 

The  Intrinsic  Function  of  Subject-Matter. — These  two 
ideas  are  expressed  by  the  term  "intrinsic  function  of 
subject-matter,"  which  may  be  defined  as  the  function  which 
subject-matter  serves  in  racial  economy  zvithout  respect  to 
the  purposes  of  the  school.  As  illustrations  of  this  intrinsic 
function,  the  discussions  in  the  preceding  chapter  are  to 
the  point,  and  further  illustrations  may  be  found  through- 
out the  succeeding  chapters  wherever  function  is  implied  or 
discussed. 

In  the  lists  of  values  given  by  Smith  for  science,  the 
second — that  of  affording  information^  of  value — is  a 
statement  of  the  intrinsic  function,  though  a  very  indefinite 
and  useless  one,  since  it  does  not  define  the  information 
that  science  gives,  the  function  stated  holding  equally  for 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION         45 

any  subject,  since  it  is  presumed  that  all  subjects  provide 
information  of  value. 

In  Bourne's  list,  the  sixth — that  of  providing  pleasure 
in  the  study  of  history  as  history,  or  the  first — that  of 
interpreting  the  world  to  the  child,  are  probably  the  in- 
trinsic functions  from  his  point  of  view,  though  by  some 
writers  objections  are  made  to  the  second  conception  of 
the  function  of  history.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  neither  of 
the  writers  has  stated  the  specific  functions  of  his  sub- 
ject with  sufficient  clearness  to  differentiate  it  from  others. 

Intrinsic  Function,  Specific. — In  this  connection  it  is 
well  to  emphasize  a  law,  subject  to  few  exceptions,  that 
each  unit  of  subject-matter  has  an  intrinsic  function  differ- 
ing from  that  of  every  other  unit.  This  depends  upon  the 
principle  of  economy  of  effort,  from  which  it  follows  that 
if  one  way  of  satisfying  the  need  has  been  found  to  work 
with  perfect  satisfaction,  people  do  not  search  for  other 
ways.  Sometimes,  when  one  method  is  not  perfectly  satis- 
factory, another  method,  an  improvement,  may  be  invented. 
Again,  it  happens  occasionally  that  different  races  and 
different  persons  widely  separated  work  out  different 
methods  of  satisfying  the  same  needs,  and,  occasionally, 
both  of  these  are  handed  down  to  posterity  side  by  side. 
For  instance,  the  Romans  used  one  sort  of  numeral,  the 
Arabs  another,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  have  inherited  both. 
But  for  the  most  part  each  unit  has  a  different  function. 
And,  without  exception,  this  holds  true  for  the  great 
divisions  of  subject-matter  such  as  are  taught  in  school. 
History  solves  certain  problems  in  a  certain  way.  Physics 
solves  certain  problems  in  its  own  way.  Language  solves 
certain  problems  in  ways  peculiar  to  itself.  Wherefore,  it 
is  the  business  of  teaching  to  determine  what  is  the  specific 


46  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

intrinsic  purpose  of  each  unit  used  in  the  educative  process. 

The  Indirect  Function  of  Subject-Matter. — When  we 
consider  the  place  of  subject-matter  in  relation  to  the  educa- 
tion of  pupils,  certain  new  and  confusing  functions  of 
subject-matter  develop.  Ask  a  group  of  teachers  about 
the  value  of  algebra  to  high  school  boys,  and  they  will 
tell  you  that  it  develops  exactness,  trains  the  logical  powers, 
provides  a  good  discipline,  and  prepares  students  for  uni- 
versity work.  This  answer  is  more  or  less  correct,  for 
algebra  does  possess  all  these  values.  But  none  of  them 
is  the  intrinsic  function  of  algebra,  since  algebra  cannot 
conceivably  have  been  created,  nor  is  it  now  used  by  the 
race  outside  of  school,  for  any  such  purpose.  Its  intrinsic 
function  is  something  different,  and  will  be  discussed  in  its 
proper  place. 

The  values  which  Bourne  and  Smith  give  for  history 
and  science,  and  the  values  of  algebra  just  stated,  are  actual 
and  forceful.  But  the  important  fact  to  be  remembered 
about  them  is  that  they  are  by-products  which  are  secured 
while  the  intrinsic  function  is  being  fulfilled.  When  pupils 
work  out  the  intrinsic  problems  of  algebra,  it  is  found 
that  they  grow  in  logical  power,  and  are  getting  ready  for 
college.  When  pupils  are  solving  the  problems  of  science, 
at  the  same  time  without  thinking  much  about  it,  they  grow 
in  power  of  judgment,  comparison,  induction,  and  so  forth. 
The  problems  of  the  subject  are  in  the  focus  of  attention, 
and  after  attending  for  a  long  time,  we  find,  when  we  take 
stock,  that  other  values  have  been  constantly  accruing. 

These  values  which  accrue  as  by-products  while  the  in- 
trinsic function  is  being  operated  may  be  called  "indirect 
functions"  of  subject-matter. 

Unfortunately  for  the  pupils,  teachers  confuse  these  two 
sets  of  functions,  the  intrinsic  and  the  indirect,  when  they 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION         47 

think  about  the  value  of  the  subjects  taught.  It  is  unfor- 
tunate because  pupils  frequently  do  not  care  much  about 
logical  training  and  preparation  for  life,  for  duty  and  neat- 
ness. Because  the  studies  possess  little  subjective  value, 
the  teacher  encounters  a  world  of  difficulty  in  getting  chil- 
dren interested  in  them.  This  would  be  obviated  if  each 
unit  of  subject-matter  were  tested  out  by  the  teacher  to 
find  its  intrinsic  function  and  the  need  it  satisfies,  and  if 
an  effort  were  made  to  correlate  it  with  the  appropriate 
need  found  in  the  pupil's  experience. 

Classes  of  Indirect  Functions. — Of  these  indirect  func- 
tions there  are  at  least  three.1  First,  the  disciplinary 
function,  the  training  of  the  mental  powers,  such  as 
memory,  imagination,  reasoning,  habits  of  neatness,  etc. 
From  this  function,  much  of  the  basis  for  its  claim  to  rec- 
ognition has  been  removed  by  recent  investigations  into 
the  facts  regarding  formal  discipline.  Second,  the  prepar- 
atory functions  which  belong  to  certain  subjects.  For  in- 
stance, algebra,  while  concerned  intrinsically  with  other 
matters,  has  an  indirect  advantage,  in  that  it  is  a  prepara- 
tion for  higher  mathematics.  The  third  class  includes  those 
decorative  functions  which  consist  in  a  mere  acquaintance 
with  certain  subjects.  A  knowledge  of  historical  names 
and  events,  a  reasonable  ability  to  speak  correct  English, 
some  acquaintance  with  literary  characters,  all  have  a  value 
which  is  evident  in  a  negative  way  at  least,  in  the  social 
criticism  to  which  one  not  possessing  them  is  exposed. 

SECTION  3.     FUNCTION  FOR  THE  AUTHOR,  TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 

These  distinctions  may  be  approached  from  another  point 
of  view.  We  may  look  upon  any  unit  of  subject-matter 
from  three  standpoints : 

1  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  230-2. 


48  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

.First,  we  may  consider  the  problem  which  the  author 
wished  to  solve  when  he  wrote.  For  instance,  Longfellow 
tells  us  that  his  purpose  in  writing  Excelsior  was  to  "display 
in  a  series  of  pictures  the  life  of  a  man  of  genius,  resisting 
all  temptations,  laying  aside  all  fears,  heedless  of  all  warn- 
ings, and  pressing  right  on  to  accomplish  his  purpose."1 
This  we  may  call  the  intrinsic  function  the  author  intended 
the  poem  to  serve. 

Second,  the  function  of  the  poem  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  teacher  should,  of  course,  include  the  intrinsic  function 
which  the  author  had  in  mind.  But,  in  addition,  the  teacher 
may  have  other  purposes  which  he  intends  it  to  serve.  For 
instance,  he  may  have  in  his  classes  some  ambitionless  boys 
upon  whom  he  wishes  it  to  act  as  a  spur.  Or,  he  may  wish 
to  use  it  as  a  means  of  giving  his  pupils  a  training  in  literary 
interpretation.  Now,  these  are  the  indirect  values  that 
flow  from  a  study  of  the  poem  and  may  not  have  been 
thought  of  by  the  author  at  all.  In  this  case,  certainly 
Longfellow  did  not  state  that  he  intended  the  poem  to  be 
a  spur  to  anybody,  nor  to  give  a  training  in  literary  inter- 
pretation. He  says  specifically  that  his  purpose  was  to 
"display  the  life  of  a  man  of  genius,"  not  to  present  a 
moral  or  critical  treatise.  Hence,  we  see  that  the  teacher's 
view  of  the  function  must  include  the  author's,  but  may 
include  many  other  functions  besides. 

Third,  the  function  of  the  subject-matter  may  be  con- 
sidered from  the  student's  point  of  view.  When  we  con- 
sider what  he  is  consciously  working  for,  we  find  at  once 
that  he  may  not  see  as  the  function  of  the  unit  all  those 
purposes  which  the  teacher  expects  it  to  serve  in  his  educa- 
tion. For  instance,  he  may  not  be  aware  of  the  fact  that 

1  Longfellow's  Poetical  Works,  Vol.  i,  p.  79  (Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co.,  1892  edition). 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION 


49 


the  teacher  guilefully  presents  Excelsior  in  the  hope  that  it 
will  spur  him  on  to  action,  and  he  may  not  know  that  the 
teacher  intends  the  study  of  the  poem  to  give  him  greater 
powers  of  interpretation.  Of  course,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  may  be  conscious  of  the  teacher's  intention,  and  he  may 
consciously  strive  for  this  greater  power  which  the  teacher 
wishes  him  to  have.  But  the  point  is  that  to  the  student 
the  purpose  of  the  poem  need  not  be,  and  usually  is  not, 
as  broad  as  it  is  to  the  teacher. 

When  we  consider  the  relation  of  the  pupil's  view  of  the 
function  to  that  of  the  author,  two  facts  are  in  evidence. 
In  the  first  place,  the  pupil's  view  may  not  be  the  same  as 
that  of  the  author.  For  instance,  he  may  not  see  in  the 
poem  under  discussion  that  there  is  "displayed  the  life  of 
a  man  of  genius."  The  poem  may  be  for  him  only  the 
adventures  of  a  very  strange  sort  of  boy.  He  may  not  be 
able  to  look  behind  the  story  to  find  the  meaning  which 
the  author  intended.  But,  in  the  second  place  (to  lay  down 
a  principle  which,  while  allowing  for  numerous  exceptions, 
is  generally  applicable),  the  function  of  any  unit  as  the 
author  intended  it  and  as  the  pupil  uses  it  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  identical.  For,  if  each  unit  is  a  tool 
constructed  for  a  specific  purpose,  then  the  pupil  will,  as 
a  general  thing,  get  the  most  good  from  using  it  for  that 
specific  purpose.  A  razor  will  usually  do  its  best  work 
when  it  is  used  as  an  instrument  for  shaving;  the  tragedy 
of  Macbeth  will  exert  its  influence  to  the  fullest  degree 
when  the  function  it  serves  in  the  life  of  the  reader  is  that 
for  which  Shakespeare  created  it. 

The  teacher's,  the  author's,  and  the  pupil's  views  of  the 
function  of  subject-matter  may  be  compared  and  contrasted 
as  follows :  The  teacher's  idea  of  the  purpose  of  a  unit 
must  include  both  the  author's  and  the  pupil's,  whether 


50  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

these  latter  agree  or  not.  It  may  include  also  certain  other 
indirect  functions  of  which  neither  the  pupil  nor  the  author 
is  conscious.  The  author's  and  the  pupil's  views  of  the 
function  are  in  the  main  identical;  for  in  both  the  intrinsic 
function  is  uppermost.  Where  a  discrepancy  between  them 
exists,  either  the  author's  or  the  pupil's  point  of  view  may 
determine  for  the  teacher  what  is  the  intrinsic  function, 
and  which  shall  do  so  depends  upon  circumstances.  If  we 
are  anxious  to  find  out  what  the  author  was  trying  to  say, 
then  his  purpose  is  the  intrinsic  function;  but  if  we  are 
looking  for  something  to  adopt  and  utilize  in  solving  some 
problem  of  the  pupil,  the  function  of  the  author  becomes 
secondary  in  importance,  and  the  pupil's  view  becomes  the 
intrinsic  function. 

Advantages  of  These  Distinctions. — First,  they  make 
possible  a  separate  disposition  of  the  functions  which  subject- 
matter  serves.  For  instance,  the  teacher  should,  in  begin- 
ning to  teach  any  subject  to  a  class,  consider  all  the  values 
that  may  be  controlled  through  a  study  of  the  subject — 
such  things  as  thoroughness,  honesty,  neatness,  and  disci- 
pline of  memory  and  imagination  should  be  considered,  and 
those  selected  which  are  most  relevant  in  the  particular 
conditions  in  which  he  finds  himself.  Then,  from  day  to 
day,  as  each  unit  of  subject-matter  is  taught,  such  of  these 
as  need  special  attention  should  be  noted.  In  addition  to 
this,  the  specific  intrinsic  function  of  each  unit  should  be 
determined.  But  the  indirect  purposes  should  form  the 
background  of  the  stage.  The  specific  intrinsic  function 
should  be  in  the  foreground  of  the  stage,  the  thing  upon 
which  the  teacher  attempts  to  center  the  conscious  efforts  of 
the  children. 

Second,  if  these   indirect  results  are  by-products,   it   is 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION          51 

evident  that  the  attention  of  the  pupils  should,  for  the 
major  part  of  the  time,  be  directed  upon  the  intrinsic  func- 
tions of  subject-matter.  Most  attention  is  given  by  pupils 
in  arithmetic  to  measuring  quantities,  which  is  the  intrinsic 
purpose  of  arithmetic,  and  less  conscious  attention  is  given 
to  training  powers  of  accuracy.  More  of  the  pupil's  atten- 
tion will  be  given  to  communicating  things  of  value  in 
language,  and  less  to  the  written  forms.  In  history,  the 
greater  part  of  the  pupil's  attention  should  be  placed  upon 
the  solving  of  the  problems  of  the  race  in  continuous  series 
from  their  ancient  to  their  modern  forms,  while  a  smaller 
amount  should  be  placed  upon  the  training  of  memory, 
imagination,  and  so  forth. 

Third,  the  indirect  functions  of  subject-matter  may,  as 
we  saw  in  Chapter  II,  serve  as  aids  in  the  solving  of  our 
conscious  problems.  For  instance,  no  process  in  arithmetic 
will  really  fulfill  its  intrinsic  function  adequately  unless 
accuracy  is  used.  Hence,  accuracy  is  not  only  a  by-product  ; 
it  is  also  an  aid.  It  is  a  by-product  which  is  so  closely  related 
to  the  central  process  that  the  central  process  cannot  get 
along  without  it.  This  is  true  in  the  case  of  most  of  the 
indirect  values. 

By  virtue  of  this  close  relationship  we  are  able  to  state 
the  conditions  under  which  the  indirect  values  should  be 
given  a  place  in  the  focus  of  attention  of  the  pupils — viz., 
when  the  pupils'  failure  to  adequately  carry  out  the  intrin- 
sic function  of  the  subject-matter  is  imminent  or  has  oc- 
curred. For  instance,  when  it  seems  likely  that  they  will 
not  be  able  to  get  the  correct  result  in  measuring,  or  when 
it  is  already  evident  that  they  cannot,  because  of  inaccu- 
racy, then  accuracy  should  be  brought  to  the  focus  of 
attention  for  the  time  being.  That  is  to  say,  attention 


52  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

should  be  paid  to  the  indirect  functions  of  subject-matter 
when  the  direct  ones  have  broken  down  or  are  on  the  verge 
of  doing  so. 

Fourth,  these  distinctions  enable  us  to  draw  a  clear  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  needs  that  children  feel  and 
the  needs  which  the  teacher  feels  that  they  have.  It  is  one 
thing  for  the  teacher  to  feel  that  a  boy  needs  punishment; 
it  is  a  quite  different  thing  for  the  boy  to  feel  that  he 
needs  it.  It  is  one  thing  for  the  teacher  to  feel  that  the 
pupil  needs  history  in  order  to  make  him  a  good  citizen; 
it  is  quite  another  thing  for  the  pupil  to  feel  that  he  has 
this  need.  Yet,  no  matter  what  purpose  the  teacher  has  in 
view,  the  function  which  the  subject-matter  will  perform 
in  the  work  of  the  school  is  dependent  also  upon  how  the 
pupil  feels  about  it. 

Of  the  two,  the  child's  conscious  need  must  be  the  start- 
ing point  of  the  school  process.  If  the  teacher  is  to  have 
the  child's  estimate  of  his  own  needs  become  identical  with 
the  teacher's  estimate  of  them — and  this  latter,  in  the 
main,  makes  for  the  greater  social  efficiency — he  must 
develop  those  needs  which  the  child  does  feel  until  they 
grow  into  the  form  of  those  which  the  teacher,  as  the 
wiser  individual,  feels  and  appreciates. 

Fifth,  we  see,  also,  that,  on  the  whole,  those  units  of 
subject-matter  of  which  the  child  cannot  appreciate  the 
intrinsic  function  as  judged  from  the  author's  standpoint, 
ought  not  to  be  forced  upon  the  pupil  before  the  relevant 
needs  are  present.  Why  give  him  subject-matter  for  which 
he  has  no  apparent  use?  It  may  abide  for  a  time  in 
memory  as  so  much  foreign  material,  seldom  to  be  assimi- 
lated, probably  soon  to  be  lost. 

Sixth,  these  distinctions  further  lead  us  to  see  the  futility 
of  trying  to  follow  a  text-book  slavishly.  The  author  may 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION         53 

not  have  had  the  problems  of  any  real  pupils  in  mind,  or  he 
may  have  built  it  for  his  own  pupils,  from  whom  other 
pupils  may  differ.  And,  again,  different  classes  which  the 
same  author  may  teach  have  different  needs  and  problems 
arising  in  a  different  order  from  year  to  year,  so  that  he 
himself,  if  he  is  a  good  teacher,  cannot  slavishly  follow  his 
own  text.  Hence,  if  we  are  to  follow  the  conscious  needs 
of  the  children,  and  thus  introduce  subject-matter  whose 
intrinsic  function  is  to  satisfy  felt  needs,  we  must  follow 
the  lead  of  the  pupils  and  not  that  of  the  order  of  the 
text-book,  unless  the  two  run  side  by  side. 

Finally,  these  distinctions  require  the  teacher  to  scruti- 
nize every  unit  of  subject-matter  to  see  what  is  its  intrinsic 
specific  function;  for  otherwise  it  may  not  be  usable  in 
the  situation  for  which  it  was  intended.  It  is  not  sufficient 
to  consider  merely  that  a  shovel  and  a  fork  both  develop 
muscle.  Of  much  more  importance  is  it  to  know,  in  addi- 
tion, that  for  which  each  of  these  instruments  is  especially 
useful.  If  only  muscular  training  were  involved,  there 
would  be  no  harm  in  pitching  hay  with  the  shovel.  Perhaps 
such  exercise  would  be  strongly  conducive  to  muscular 
development.  And  yet  it  would  not  be  very  sensible  in 
practical  life. 

The  teacher  should  realize  the  folly  of  saying,  for 
example,  that  for  his  purpose  in  class  the  function  of 
Hamlet  is  to  train  the  imagination,  or  to  create  a  love  for 
good  literature.  In  that  case,  the  purpose  of  Hamlet  is 
not  different  from  that  of  a  hundred  other  poems.  But 
when  we  say  that  the  specific  intrinsic  function  of  the 
play  is  "to  show  the  dissolution  of  an  indecisive  character," 
then  Hamlet  stands  by  itself  distinct  from  all  other  poems. 
The  student  turns  to  it  for  enlightenment  concerning  the 
question  of  indecision  of  character.  That  should  be  the 


54  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

central  theme  of  the  recitation,  the  one  upon  elucidation  of 
which  the  most  of  the  attention  should  be  centered. 

SECTION  4.     SUBJECT-MATTER  AS  END  AND  AS  MEANS 

Efforts  to  clarify  the  meaning  of  function  meet  with 
difficulties  of  another  sort. 

The  question,  Why  study  algebra,  history  or  physics? 
is  answered  by  some  by  saying  that  each  is  worth  while 
for  its  own  sake.  The  scientist  thinks  the  problems  of  his 
subject  are  worth  solving  as  scientific  facts,  worth  as  much 
in  themselves  as  are  any  other  problems.  The  historian 
studies  history  to  know  history,  and  the  mathematician 
takes  delight  in  an  abstruse  problem  in  his  own  field,  just 
for  the  sake  of  solving  it.  This  is  called  the  attitude  of 
the  specialist,  and  to  such  an  one  the  function  of  his  subject 
is  to  solve  the  problems  of  that  subject. 

Others  claim  that  the  function  of  all  subjects,  the  reason 
for  their  existing,  is  to  solve  the  problems  and  satisfy  the 
needs  of  practical  men.  No  subject,  say  they,  should  be 
studied  except  as  it  is  useful  in  promoting  the  sum  total 
of  the  efficiency  and  happiness  of  the  average  man.  They 
claim  that  mathematics  can  be  justified  only  if  it  can  be 
shown  that  from  the  results  of  the  work  of  specialists 
practical  good  accrues.  If  the  chemist  in  his  laboratory 
discovers  truths  which  will  combat  disease  and  promote  the 
common  good,  he  is  justified  in  being  a  specialist.  If  the 
philosopher  can  organize  knowledge  in  such  a  way  that 
the  man  in  the  street  is  helped  to  efficiency  or  happiness,  he 
justifies  his  effort. 

Where  the  theoretical  merits  of  the  controversy  between 
the  two  camps  lie,  need  not  concern  us  here,  save  in  this 
particular,  that  pupils  of  the  grades  and  of  the  high  school 
have  not  yet  developed,  nor  are  they  interested  in  the  spe- 


DISTINCTION  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION          55 

cialist's  point  of  view  to  any  great  degree.  They  work  best 
when  in  their  own  lives  they  can  see  the  use  of  the  units 
taught.  And,  contrariwise,  teachers  have  the  specialist's 
attitude  more  strongly  than  has  the  average  man.  So  in 
the  school  room  there  is  found  a  greater  gulf  than  in  the 
world  at  large.  Hence,  teachers  have  to  be  especially  care- 
ful to  make  every  reasonable  attempt  to  teach  subject-matter 
as  a  means  to  controlling  values  outside  the  subject  taught, 
rather  than  as  material  which  is  acquired  because  of  its  own 
worth  for  and  by  itself. 

A  few  examples  will  make  this  clearer.  For  instance, 
why  study  history?  Two  types  of  answers  may  be  given: 

(1)  Because  it  is  worth  while  for  its  own  sake;    (2)  be- 
cause it  assists  in  the  understanding  of  modern  institutions. 
Again,  why  study  subjunctives  in  Latin?   Again  two  types 
of  answer   may  be  given :     ( i )    Because   they   should   be 
known;    (2)  because  they  will  help  in  understanding  sub- 
junctives in  English.    Or,  again,  why  learn  to  spell?    And 
the  ans\vers  are :    ( i )  Because  one  should  be  able  to  spell ; 

(2)  because  it  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  convey  ideas 
correctly. 

In  the  first  term  of  each  pair  of  answers  we  see  the 
specialist  point  of  view  maintaining  that  the  thing  is  worth 
while  for  its  own  sake.  In  the  second,  we  have  an  attempt 
to  show  some  other  reason  for  its  study.  History  may  not 
be  of  value  to  the  pupil,  modern  institutions  may;  Latin 
subjunctives  may  not  be  of  value,  English  subjunctives 
possibly  might.  Mere  ability  to  spell  may  be  a  bore,  while 
writing  letters  correctly  may  mean  much  to  pupils. 

Of  coufse,  if  these  second  terms  are  of  no  more  value 
than  the  first  terms;  if,  for  instance,  pupils  have  no  more 
interest  in  understanding  modern  institutions  than  in  his- 
tory, no  more  interest  in  English  than  in  Latin  subjunctives, 


56  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

and  hold  the  conveying  of  ideas  exactly  to  be  of  little  value, 
there  will  be  no  more  motive  in  the  one  case  than  in  the 
other.  But  an  effort  to  discover  the  second,  instrumental, 
type  of  function  gives  a  second  chance  to  secure  a  motive 
for  study,  gives  another  opportunity  to  secure  a  useful  life 
for  the  facts  secured  by  the  pupils.  This  is  more  than  an 
even  chance,  and  is  well  worth  taking. 

Summary. — Returning  to  our  two  illustrations  in  the 
introductory  section  of  this  chapter,  we  are  now  able  to 
assign  differing  values  and  places  to  the  members  of  the 
lists  there  tabulated.  In  the  case  of  science,  the  second 
function  listed  is  the  intrinsic  function.  Whether  this  in- 
formation should  be  studied  for  its  own  sake,  or  because  it 
may  be  an  instrument  in  getting  control  of  other  values, 
the  author  does  not  state.  The  first  function  of  science 
stated  is  indirect  and  disciplinary. 

In  the  case  of  history,  the  first  and  sixth  functions  "are 
intrinsic.  The  second  probably  illustrates  the  fact  that  his- 
tory is  an  instrument  in  the  fulfillment  of  interests,  and 
thus  considers  the  subject-matter  as  a  means.  The  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  are  indirect  functions.  These  come  mainly 
as  by-products;  only  occasionally  are  they  brought  to  the 
focus  of  attention.  The  sixth  views  history  as  an  end  in 
itself,  worthy  of  study  because  of  the  pleasure  history  as 
history  gives. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  intrinsic  specific  functions  of  a  lead 
pencil,  a  fountain  pen,  an  electric  light,  a  book-case,  a  chair, 
a  rocking  chair,  a  Morris  chair,  a  hammock,   a  vacuum 
cleaner,  a  match,  a  fireless  cooker? 

2.  What  are  the  intrinsic  functions  of  nouns,  adjectives, 
adverbs,  tense,  voice,  mood,  comparison  of  adjectives,  per- 


DISTINCTIONS  IN  MEANING  OF  FUNCTION          57 

son  and  number,  as  forms  of  the  sentence,  the  function  of 
all  grammatical  forms  being  stated  as  that  of  making  oral 
communication  more  exact? 

3.  What  may  be  the  intrinsic  and  indirect  functions  of 
walking,  haymaking,  cooking,  clerking  in  a  store,  using  a 
telephone,  playing  baseball,  reading  good  literature,  selling 
real  estate?  - 

4.  What  indirect  values  may   flow   from  a   study  of 
physical   geography,  botany,   spelling,   reading,   arithmetic, 
physics?     (If  available,. read  pedagogical  articles  upon  the 
values  of  these  subjects.) 

5.  Give  ten  examples  of  how  adults  may  use  a  thing 
for  one  purpose  when  it  is  intended  to  be  used  for  another 
purpose. 

6.  Give  ten  instances  in  which  pupils  have  not  seen  the 
author's  purpose  in  connection  with  certain  selections  or 
topics,  but  have  used  them  for  a  quite  different  purpose. 

7.  Give  ten  instances  in  which  you,  either  in  the  school 
room  or  among  your  friends  outside,  have  had  pupils  or 
friends  do  things  when  the  reason  they  had  for  doing  them 
was  not  the  reason  you  had  in  mind  for  having  them  do 
them.    Did  it  ever  work  better  for  them  not  to  know  your 
purpose,   even  when  your  purpose  was  to  benefit   them? 
Explain. 

8.  Give  five  instances  of  where,  by  using  things  for 
purposes  for  which  they  were  not  intended,  disastrous  results 
followed.     Give  a  like  number  in  which  the  use  was  satis- 
factory. 

9.  If  a  teacher  follows  the  lead  of  each  pupil's  needs, 
what  will  be  the  result  in  a  class  of  thirty?    What  will  you 
do  about  it? 

10.     Give   ten   cases   where  you   have   felt   that   people 
needed  certain  things  but  they  themselves  did  not  feel  the 


58  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

need.     In  any  of  these  cases,  when  they  did,  or  secured 
what  you  felt  they  needed,  how  was  it  brought  about? 

11.  If  a  scientist  tried  to  investigate  only  the  things  that 
would  be  of  immediate  practical  use,  what  effect  would  it 
have  on  his  science? 

12.  If  a  teacher  does  not  care  whether  the  pupils  see 
the  use  of  anything  taught,  what  effect  has  it  on  him? 
On  the  pupils? 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT- MATTER 

SECTION  i.     SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  THE  RACE  AND  OF  THE  PUPIL 

Subject-matter  is  found  in  two  places — in  the  experience 
of  the  pupil  and  in  the  active  experiential  life  of  the  race. 
The  pupil  possesses  a  body  of  subject-matter  for  the  most 
part  lacking  in  systematic  organization;  but  some  of  it 
is  always  vigorous,  and  it  frequently  is  well  organized.  It 
will  be  shown  later  that  true  learning  consists  in  progres- 
sively utilizing  this  experience  in  gaining  new  subject- 
matter  or  in  organizing  that  which  has  been  hitherto  un- 
systematically  collected  by  the  pupil.  The  race,  also,  has 
worked  out  a  vast  body  of  subject-matter,  in  part  unsys- 
tematic, but  to  a  greater  extent  organized  into  coherent 
systems. 

In  organizing  and  adding  to  the  experience  of  pupils, 
racial  subject-matter  is  of  prime  importance,  because  the 
pupil,  when  he  wishes  a  new  method  of  action,  can  turn 
to  that  which  lies  at  hand,  fresh  from  the  polishing  touch 
of  the  race,  can  therefore  save  time  and  effort,  and  can 
actually  secure  greater  efficiency  than  if  he  had  worked  out 
the  method  as  an  entirely  original  production. 

Racial  Subject-Matter. — The  most  apparent  groups  of 
racial  subject-matter  are  the  divisions  or  fields  of  knowl- 
edge, consisting  of  the  physical  sciences,  such  as  physics, 
chemistry,  botany,  zoology,  geology,  etc.;  the  social  sci- 
ences, consisting  of  sociology,  ethics,  history,  economics, 

59 


6o 

language,  etc.;  and  the  abstract  sciences,  consisting  of 
mathematics,  philosophy,  etc.  In  addition  to  these  well- 
organized  subjects,  there  is  a  great  mass  of  subject-ma '.ter 
that  is  not  well  organized  and  cannot  be  classified  com- 
pletely under  any  of  these  heads. 

Each  of  these  groups  is  constantly  undergoing  modifica- 
tion, some  parts  remaining  constant,  while  others  change. 
For  instance,  in  the  well-known  ethical  field,  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments have  remained  constant  as  methods  of  moral 
conduct  through  many  generations  and  are  still  considered 
valid.  But  certain  of  the  other  moral  precepts  enunciated 
by  the  Hebrews,  such  as  the  prohibition  by  Paul  of  partici- 
pation in  religious  services  by  women,  have  become  obsolete. 
The  Bible  itself  is  the  surviving  remains  of  a  much  larger 
Hebrew  literature  which  was  current  at  various  times  but 
which  has  now  to  a  great  extent  disappeared.  And  in  the 
ages  succeeding  the  writing  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, thousands  of  other  books  dealing  with  the  principles  of 
the  Christian  religion  have  been  current,  but  only  a  very  few 
of  these  have  been  of  interest  to  peoples  of  later  genera- 
tions. In  like  manner,  many  of  the  books  upon  moral  sub- 
jects today  are  of  purely  contemporary  value  and  will  not 
be  used  by  succeeding  ages. 

Explanation. — This  permanence  and  transitoriness  of 
subject-matter  is  explained  by  the  following  facts: 

First,  the  needs  and  problems  for  the  satisfaction  of  which 
subject-matter  has  been  created  and  is  used,  are  of  two 
sorts — fundamental  and  transient.  The  fundamental  needs 
and  problems  persist  throughout  generations;  the  transient 
appear  for  a  short  time  and  then  disappear.  For  instance, 
much  was  written  and  many  theories  were  put  forward 
forty  years  ago  to  explain  the  query,  Who  stole  Charlie 
Ross?  But  to  this  generation  the  problem  is  only  a  name, 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       6l 

and  fifty  years  hence  the  last  traces  of  vitality  in  the  prob- 
lem will  have  disappeared.  The  scholastics  were  much 
concerned  about  the  question  of  the  trinity  and  unity  of 
the  Godhead,  a  problem  in  which  this  generation  is  not 
vitally  interested. 

Second,  subject-matter  dealing  with  permanent  problems 
has  a  better  chance  to  live  since  the  fundamentals  remain 
through  succeeding  generations. 

Third,  the  best  methods  of  solution  will  remain,  while 
poorer  methods  are  discarded.  The  problem  of  cutting 
grain  is  fundamental  and  has  persisted  from  the  beginning. 
Yet  we  find  the  hands,  the  sickle,  the  scythe,  the  cradle,  and 
the  reaper  each  in  turn  supplanted  by  the  later  improvement, 
and  all  by  the  binder,  because  in  each  case  the  newer  method 
of  solving  the  problem  was  found  to  be  better  than  its 
predecessors. 

There  are,  then,  four  possibilities  of  survival.  If  a  method 
solves  a  fundamental  problem  well,  it  has  a  good  chance 
for  permanency.  If  a  method  solves  a  fundamental  prob- 
lem fairly  well,  it  has  a  smaller  chance  to  survive,  since  it 
will  continue  only  until  a  better  method  is  devised.  If  a 
method  solves  a  transitory  problem  well,  it  has  a  chance  of 
survival  during  the  short  life  of  that  problem.  And  if  a 
method  solves  a  transitory  problem  poorly,  its  chances  to 
live  are  slight. 

Racial  subject-matter  at  the  disposal  of  the  pupil  should, 
then,  consist  of  the  best  methods  of  solving  both  funda- 
mental problems  and  transitory  problems  of  his  generation. 
The  teacher  has  to  select  from  among  the  methods  now 
current  those  that  are  best,  and  has  also  to  emphasize  among 
these  the  methods  which  solve  the  fundamental  problems, 
in  order  that  what  is  taught  may  function  longest  in  the 
pupil's  youthful  and  adult  experience. 


62  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Pupils'  Subject-Matter. — The  pupil's  experience  is 
exactly  parallel  to  the  foregoing.  He  has  needs  and  prob- 
lems, some  of  which  are  fundamental,  others  of  which  are 
transitory.  Activity  and  rest,  companionship,  curiosity, 
constructiveness,  food,  are  fundamental.  The  needs  of  the 
moment  are  multitudinous,  passing  rapidly  on  and  off  the 
stage  of  effort.  Whims,  fancies,  insistent  demands  that 
soon-  cease,  and  a  thousand  others,  could  be  named.  The 
pupil,  like  the  race,  has  worked  out  solutions  for  his  prob- 
lems. And  when  the  problems  are  fundamental  and  the 
solutions  are  good,  they  remain ;  when  the  solutions  are 
poor  they  will  be  displaced  upon  the  discovery  of  better. 

The  pedagogical  meaning  of  this  is  that  racial  methods 
of  handling  problems  which  the  pupil  has  will  be  service- 
able in  helping  him  to  revise  his  methods  and  secure  those 
most  efficient  methods  which  will  remain  with  him  through- 
out life,  or  until  superseded  by  better  methods. 

From  the  teacher's  point  of  view,  racr'al  subject-matter  is 
also  a  means  by  which  the  pupil  may  be  led  to  discover  his 
own  problems  and  interests,  as  when  a  pupil,  given  the 
task  of  studying  algebra,  may  find  thereby  in  mathematics 
his  life  work.  This  fact  is  mentioned,  however,  with  some 
hesitation,  because  teachers  are  overworking  it  at  present 
in  justifying  the  introduction  of  subject-matter  very  often 
initially  and  sometimes  forever  foreign  to  the  vital  expe- 
rience of  many  of  their  pupils. 

It  is  evident  from  this  section  that  needs  and  problems 
should  be  closely  related  to  whatever  race  subject-matter  is 
studied,  and  it  is  implied  that  the  teachers  should  closely 
scrutinize  in  each  case  the  specific  intrinsic  functions  of 
each  group  and  unit  of  subject-matter,  so  that  in  the  first 
place  the  appropriate  subject-matter  may  be  intelligently 
selected  to  solve  problems  already  present  in  the  pupil's 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       63 

consciousness;  and  so  that  in  the  second  place  the  appro- 
priate need  may  be  found  for  subject-matter  that  the 
teacher  has  tentatively  decided  should  be  presented  to  his 
pupils.  In  the  following  sections  illustrations  will  be  given 
of  the  intrinsic  functions  of  several  groups. 

SECTION  2.    THE  LANGUAGE  GROUP 

The  common  definition  of  the  function  of  language  is 
that  of  communicating  ideas.  This  is,  of  course,  correct. 
But  if  a  definition  can  be  given  that  will  include  an  analysis 
of  function,  answering  the  questions,  By  whom  are  ideas 
communicated?  What  ideas  are  communicated?  and,  To 
whom  are  they  communicated?  it  will  be  more  useful  in 
methods  of  teaching.  The  following  statement,  in  line 
with  our  conception  of  values,  is  given,  and  will  open  up 
the  whole  question  of  language  teaching. 

The  intrinsic  function  of  language  is  (i)  the  communi- 
cation through  words,  (2)  of  things  of  value,  (3)  between 
persons  having  a  like  appreciation  of  these  values,  but  (4) 
possessing  different  levels  of  control.  In  so  far  as  other 
means  than  words  are  used  for  communication  of  things 
of  value,  we  have  language  only  by  analogy.  Painting  is 
not  language  in  the  strict  meaning  of  the  word,  because  it 
communicates  values  through  colors  rather  than  through 
words. 

Language  will  not  be  used  to  best  advantage  unless  there 
is  something  of  value  to  be  communicated.  Those  subjects 
upon  which  we  have  nothing  of  value  to  say  and  over 
which  we  neither  have  nor  desire  to  have  control,  we  do 
not  talk  about.  On  the  other  hand,  we  are  not  only  willing 
but  anxious  to  discuss  those  topics  and  ideas  which  are 
of  great  value  to  us  and  over  which  we  either  have  or 
desire  to  have  control.  The  more  valuable  they  seem,  the 


64  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

» 

more  enthusiastic,  forceful,  and  burning  are  our  words. 
The  man  with  a  message  is  one  who  has  a  deep  apprecia- 
tion of  some  value  and  of  the  efficacy  of  some  method  of 
securing  control  over  it.  The  ordinary  school  composition 
set  by  the  teacher  is  not  conducive  to  good  expression  if 
it  is  not  felt  by  the  class  to  be  of  value.  Whether  it  is 
valuable  as  judged  by  adult  standards  does  not  materially 
affect  the  situation,  for  if  the  pupil  does  not  feel  the  value 
it  provides  no  motive. 

/  Unless  there  is  an  appreciation  of  values  common  to  both 
speaker  and  hearer,  language  will  not  function  properly. 
We  do  not  tell  our  jokes  to  the  literal-minded.  The  lover 
of  Shakespeare  does  not  discuss  his  beloved  author  with  a 
street  urchin,  nor  do  we  talk  about  our  great  ideals  to  one 
who  will  scoff  at  them.  But  if  we  find  another  lover  of 
Shakespeare,  how  easy  to  converse  with  him  for  hours; 
and  how  easy  it  is  to  grow  enthusiastic  over  our  ideals  with 
one  who  is  in  sympathy  with  them!  O_i  the  other  hand, 
we  are  not  surprised  that  the  dry  mechanical  teacher  of 
language,  who  looks  upon  compositions  as  compositions, 
and  does  not  lead  his  pupils  to  feel  that  their  themes  are  of 
real  interest  to  him,  should  have  pupils  who  detest  the 
subject. 

Unless  there  is  a  difference  in  level  between  speaker  and 
hearer  there  will  be  little  force  in  language  utterance. 
Language  is  for  the  purpose  either  of  asking  questions  of 
some  one  with  better  control,  or  of  answering  questions, 
implicit  or  explicit,  by  some  one  with  a  higher  level  of 
control.  We  do  not  ask  a  question  enthusiastically  of  one 
who  we  believe  knows  less  about  the  subject  than  we 
ourselves.  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  are  we  eager  to  give 
information  on  a  subject  to  those  who  we  think  know 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       65 

more  about  it  than  we.  We  have  to  feel  that  we  can  give 
something  that  the  audience  will  consider  valuable  before 
we  use  language  in  the  way  that  is  most  vigorous  and 
forceful. 

Under  some  circumstances  we  use  language  as  a  means 
of  revealing  a  consciousness  of  social  worth.  That  is  to 
say,  to  individuals  who,  because  of  the  possession  of  a 
supposedly  secret  body  of  knowledge,  consider  themselves 
to  belong  to  a  distinct  group  and  order,  we  express  our 
ideas  for  the  purpose  of  showing  them  that  our  possession 
of  this  knowledge  gives  us  also  the  right  to  belong  to  the 
group.  Secret  societies  afford  examples  of  this.  It  is  this 
insufficient  motive  which  is  most  commonly  used  in  school. 
The  pupil  recites  in  order  to  prove  his  knowledge  of  a 
certain  fact  which  the  teacher  and  the  other  pupils  are 
supposed  to  know. 

Social  approval  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  strongest  of  the 
motives  operating  in  individual  or  in  racial  history.  To  win 
the  commendations  of  the  group  is,  for  the  normal  indi- 
vidual, an  innate  desire;  to  incur  the  condemnation  of 
the  group  is  one  of  the  most  serious  of  punishments.  So 
far  as  the  school  is  concerned,  this  is  worked  to  its  extreme 
limit — to  such  an  extent  that  it  becomes  often  inoperative, 
as  when  the  teacher's  good  opinion  is  not  greatly  prized 
by  the  pupils  and  when  the  ''public  opinion"  of  the  chil- 
dren is  at  variance  with  the  opinion  of  the  teacher  upon 
questions  of  what  is  or  is  not  of  worth. 

Pedagogical  Applications. — A  brief  application  of  this 
function  may  be  made  to  the  problems  of  teaching.  First, 
the  pupil  writing  composition  should  choose  his  own  indi- 
vidual topics  on  which  to  write.  He  should  be  advised  to 
write  superlative  experiences.  That  is,  he  should  choose  the 


66  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

most  interesting,  the  funni^,  the  saddest,  the  best,  etc. 
These  will  be  the  most  valuable  to  him  and  most  likely  to 
prove  interesting  to  his  audience. 

Second,  the  pupil  should  have  as  his  audience,  not  the 
teacher  merely,  but  the  class  as  well.  If  he  is  writing  for 
the  class,  he  will  be  more  likely  to  feel  that  his  level  on  his 
particular  subject  is  above  that  of  his  audience. 

Third,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  not  only  to  choose  for 
his  themes  topics  which  are  of  value  to  himself,  but  he 
should  learn  to  select  from  among  such  themes  those  which 
will  be  likely  to  prove  of  interest  to  his  audience.  This  will 
help  to  keep  him  from  being  a  bore  in  later  life. 

Fourth,  the  teacher  should  cultivate  the  pupil's  desire  to 
be  told  things  about  which  he  does  not  know,  and  should 
cultivate  the  habit  of  making  the  pupils  aware  that  they 
are  able  to  tell  him  things  with  which  he  is  unfamiliar. 
There  are  some  fundamentals  ignorance  of  which  would 
be  a  shame  to  him,  but  there  are  countless  other  things 
to  claim  full  knowledge  of  which  would  be  sheer  hypocrisy. 
This  difference  of  level  will  be  easier  to  obtain  if  the  pupil 
writes  for  the  other  pupils  as  an  audience.  For,  while 
children  may  hesitate,  thinking  they  cannot  tell  the  teacher 
things  he  does  not  know,  they  are  always  certain  that  upon 
some  subjects  other  children  do  not  know  so  much  as  they. 

This  principle  deals  a  severe  blow  to  reproductive  com- 
positions. For  if  all  the  children  have  been  studying  the 
same  story  or  facts,  it  is  evident  that  when  they  write  com- 
positions they  know  that  the  audience  knows  the  facts 
already,  and  the  writing  is  done  either  for  the  approval  of 
the  teacher  or  as  a  drudgery  to  be  performed  from  neces- 
sity. Only  in  one  way. can  this  difficulty  be  alleviated,  and 
that  is  for  the  teacher  to  raise  questions  of  interpretation 
so  that  each  pupil  may  give  his  idea  of  the  question.  But, 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       67 

at  best,  reproductive  work  is  deadening  and  should  be  left 
for  the  other  subjects  of  the  course  of  study  in  which  it  is 
necessary  for  the  teacher  to  find  out  how  well  the  pupil  has 
grasped  the  lesson. 

Forms  in  Language. — Each  form  in  language  has  a 
specific  function.  Punctuation  marks  and  rules  of  grammar 
assist,  each  in  its  own  way,  to  make  the  communication  of 
values  more  exact  and  definite.  Each  has  been  worked  out 
to  meet  a  difficulty.  When  the  difficulty  arose,  the  race 
worked  out  a  device  for  correcting  it,  and  these  devices  are 
called  the  forms  of  language.  The  earliest  written  work 
contains  no  periods  or  paragraphs.  But  it  is  very  difficult 
to  discover  from  this  material  what  value  the  author  was 
attempting  to  communicate.  So.  the  period  is  invented  to 
indicate  where  a  sentence  ends.  Indentation  of  paragraphs 
serves  a  similar  purpose,  and  capitalization  ha_s  a  similar 
use.  These  arbitrary  symbols  later  come  to  have  other  uses. 
But  in  every  case  each  does  something  specific  and  indi- 
vidually different  toward  making  the  communication  of 
values  more  effective. 

Pedagogical  Applications. — Since  forms  are  tools  each 
with  a  specific  function  devised  to  help  the  child  over  specific 
difficulty,  it  follows  without  question  that  the  form  should 
be  taught  only  when  the  difficulty  for  the  removal  of  which 
it  was  created  is  consciously  felt  by  the  pupils.  Why  teach 
unity  as  a  law  of  the  paragraph  if  the  pupil  does  not  see  that 
his  failure  to  observe  the  law  of  unity  results  in  his  failure  to 
make  clear  what  he  wishes  to  tell?  Why  teach  paragraph- 
ing unless  the  pupil  is  made  conscious  of  the  fact  that  the 
thing  of  value  which  he  wishes  to  share  with  his  audience 
is  mutilated  because  he  does  not  paragraph?  There  is  a 
reasonableness  about  forms  which  appeals  to  students  only 
when  they  become  conscious  that  language  deficient  in 


68  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

forms  fails  to  fulfill  the  function  of  language.  A  fuller 
statement  of  a  method  of  introducing  forms  so  as  to  observe 
this  principle  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XV. 

Rhetoric. — The  desire  to  see  how  we  communicate 
values  exactly  has  given  rise  to  grammar  and  rhetoric. 
The  term  "rhetoric"  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  rhetor, 
meaning  a  teacher  of  oratory,  a  rhetorician.  The  function 
of  the  rhetor  in  Roman  society  was  to  teach  rules  by  which 
disputants  and  orators  might  convince  their  audiences.  The 
object  in  view  was  frequently  the  very  practical  one  of 
convincing  judges  and  common  people  that  the  line  of  action 
proposed  by  the  speaker  was  the  correct  one  to  follow.  In 
other  words,  the  speaker  had  something  of  value,  some  way 
of  acting,  of  settling  a  lawsuit,  or  of  deciding  political 
questions  which  he  considered  of  sufficient  worth  to  be  fol- 
lowed. Rhetoric  was  the  compilation  of  the  rules  which 
would  enable  him  to  communicate  his  conviction  most 
effectively.  In  this  way  a  rather  large  body  of  rules  was 
formulated ;  and  to  these  we  now  apply  the  terms  rhetoric 
and  oratory,  rhetoric  dealing  with  structure  of  a  composi- 
tion, oratory  with  its  delivery.  We  include  within  the 
compositions  considered  rhetoric  not  only  those  which  are 
to  be  delivered  from  the  platform,  but  also  those  which 
may  be  published  through  print.  However,  the  two  cases 
are  similar.  In  each  there  is,  first,  the  valuable  experience 
to  express;  and,  second,  the  rules  which  will  make  the 
expression  effective. 

The  study  of  rhetoric  embraces  the  study  of  the  forms 
of  discourse,  narration,  description,  argumentation,  expo- 
sition, and  of  the  paragraph.  The  function  of  each  of 
these  is  to  set  forth  some  idea,  the  solution  of  some  prob- 
lem thought  to  be  valuable.  In  narration,  the  purpose  is 
not  simply  to  tell  a  story,  but  to  embody  in  the  story  some 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       69 

idea  possessed  by  the  writer,  to  use  the  story  as  a  means 
of  illustration,  the  "idea"  being  the  meaning  of  the  illus- 
tration. If  the  writer  does  not  choose  to  use  narration  to 
set  forth  this  idea,  he  might  use  description,  argumenta- 
tion, or  exposition,  each  in  its  own  way  being  capable  of 
conveying  the  all-important  idea  (or  solution).  The  func- 
tion of  the  paragraph  in  this  connection  is  to  set  forth  the 
individual  units  that  are  to  be  used  in  the  handling  of  the 
solution  or  idea. 

Grammar. — The  function  of  grammar  is  to  set  forth 
the  rules  by  which  words  are  related  in  sentences  in  order 
to  convey  values  with  definiteness  and  ease.  The  original 
form  of  the  sentence  with  very  young  children  is  some- 
what analogous  to  our  present  interjection.  In  its  early 
form  the  sentence  is  composed  of  a  single  "word"  which 
contains  within  itself,  rather  indefinitely,  the  experience 
which  is  to  be  communicated.  Later,  this  one  "word"  is, 
under  the  growing  desire  to  be  more  definite  and  facile  in 
speech,  broken  up  into  all  the  grammatical  forms  which 
are  evolved  and  utilized  by  the  adult.  For  instance,  the 
pronoun  probably  arose  from  the  desire  to  have  not  only 
greater  definiteness,  but  also  greater  ease  of  expression; 
and  the  adjective  arose  from  a  desire  to  make  the  impli- 
cation contained  within  the  substantive  more  definite,  as, 
for  instance,  when,  instead  of  directing  a  person  to  a  house, 
we  direct  him  to  the  big,  red,  brick  house.1 

Pedagogical  Applications. — If  each  grammatical  form, 
even  the  most  subtle,  has  been  created  by  the  race  to  express 
values  more  definitely  or  more  easily,  it  follows  that  func- 
tional rather  than  structural  grammar  should  be  taught. 
The  history  of  the  sentence  in  its  rough  outlines  should  be 
followed  in  detail  sufficient  to  set  forth  the  problem  of 

!Cf.  Chapter  19  (Illustrative  Lesson  on  the  Adjective). 


70  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

grammar,  viz.,  the  securing  of  definiteness  and  ease,  Then 
no  form  should  be  taught  without  the  class  seeing  how  it 
aids  in  its  own  specific  way  the  accomplishment  of  either  of 
these  aims.1 

Punctuation. — The  generic  function  of  punctuation 
is  the  same  as  that  of  its  parent,  language;  it  helps  to 
communicate  values.  Its  specific  contribution  is  that  of 
helping  to  convey  relations  and  connections  in  thought  by 
means  of  certain  arbitrary  symbols  called  punctuation  marks. 
And  each  of  these  marks  has  a  specific  function  which  may 
be  found  tabulated  in  any  text-book  on  punctuation. 

Pedagogical  Applications. — If  each  mark  indicates  a 
certain  kind  of  relation,  it  follows  that  the  marks  cannot 
be  efficiently  taught  as  tools  of  communication  if  the  child 
cannot  see  their  intrinsic  utility.  For  instance,  the  comma 
cannot  be  insisted  upon  by  the  teacher,  nor  utilized  by  the 
pupil,  except  in  certain  conventional  situations,  until  the 
pupil  is  able  to  appreciate  the  relation  which  it  is  meant  to 
express.  And  since  the  comma  expresses  the  most  subtle 
relations  of  any  of  the  punctuation  marks,  only  its  simpler 
use  should  be  taught  or  insisted  upon  before  the  eighth 
grade  of  the  elementary  school. 

Reading. — Reading  is  similar  to  language  except  in  one 
particular.  The  reader  does  not  express  his  valuable  expe- 
rience in  his  own  words.  He  accepts  the  words  of  another, 
and  to  that  extent  only  he  makes  them  his  own. 

Hence,  general  methods  for  teaching  reading  are  iden- 
tical with  those  for  teaching  language.  Other  things  being 
equal,  that  reading  will  be  most  efficient  which  communi- 
cates something  of  value  to  another  person  who,  though 

1  For  an  attempt  in  high  school  work  to  carry  out  the  view  stated 
here,  see  Scott  &  Buck's  Brief  English  Grammar,  Scott,  Foresman 
&  Co.,  Chicago,  1908. 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       71 

able  to  appreciate  its  value,  has  not  come  into  possession 
of  it.  In  other  words,  reading  is  most  efficient  when  the 
reader  presents  something,  which  to  him  is  valuable,  to 
an  audience  which  is  sympathetic  but  lacking  in  the  full 
knowledge  of  what  he  presents. 

The  fact  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  reading  in  the  public 
schools  transgresses  these  three  conditions  is  so  common  as 
to  escape  notice. 

How  can  a  pupil  simulate  great  enthusiasm  for  reading 
when  the  teacher  and  every  other  pupil  in  the  class  has  the 
text  open  in  front  of  them  and  is  reading,  if  reading  at  all, 
to  criticise  his  manner  of  reading.  If  any  adult  will  put 
himself  in  such  a  position  for  an  hour,  and  read  to  an 
audience  which  knows  all  about  what  he  is  reading,  and  is 
merely  waiting  for  slips  in  expression  to  occur,  I  venture 
to  say  that  he  would  be  on  the  verge  of  nervous  prostra- 
tion. Doubtless  some  of  this  sort  of  work  is  necessary 
for  drill ;  doubtless,  also,  in  the  early  grades,  when  pupils 
are  interested  in  getting  the  thought  through  the  reading 
of  mysterious  and  romantic  signs  on  the  paper,  there  is 
little  danger.  But  it  is  carried  entirely  too  far  when  pupils 
are  seldom  allowed  to  read  to  an  audience  under  the  natural 
conditions  of  reading. 

Writing  and  Spelling. — Handwriting  as  a  member  of 
the  language  group  'attends  to  the  forms  of  letters  as  its 
special  province  in  the  effort  to  communicate  experiences  of 
value.  Legibility  and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  speed  are  the 
essential  characteristics.  Writing  fulfills  its  intrinsic  func- 
tion when  it  promotes  with  facility  the  transfer  of  expe- 
riences. The  function  of  orthography  is  to  arrange  letters 
in  words  in  the  order  decided  by  social  usage,  all  of  which 
is  intended  for  the  purpose  of  accurately  communicating 
valuable  experiences.  The  penalty  for  incorrect  spelling  is, 


72  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

essentially,  not  the  stigma  of  being  uneducated,  but  the 
failure  to  give  thought  correct  expression.  A  phonetic  or 
simplified  spelling  is  justifiable  on  the  ground  that  it  will 
be  less  likely  to  engender  inaccurate  communication  than 
is  our  present  involved,  conventional  orthography.  The 
objection  to  phonetic  spelling,  that  we  miss  thereby  the 
historical  markings  of  words,  does  not  decide  the  essential 
point  at  issue.  The  question  must  be  settled  upon  the 
grounds  of  increased  facility  of  communication.  Only  in 
so  far  as  the  ability  to  see  the  derivation  of  words  adds  to 
accuracy  of  expression  can  this  objection  be  considered  as 
an  argument  against  cnanging  to  a  phonetic  system. 

SECTION  3.     HISTORY 

The  intrinsic  function  of  history  is  to  real-ize  the  past  in 
such  a  way  as  to  help  us  appreciate  and  get  control  of 
present  values.  Or,  to  put  it  in  other  terms,  history  is 
studied  to  (i)  get  a  picture  of  the  past  in  order  to  (2) 
understand  the  present. 

History  may  be  studied  for  its  own  sake,  or  as  an  instru- 
ment for  understanding  the  present.  They  who  study  it  as 
an  end  in  itself  are  concerned  only  with  the  past;  its  rela- 
tions to  the  present  are  secondary  and  subsidiary  to  this 
other  aim.  They  claim  that  the  function  of  history  is  to 
real-ize  the  past,  and  that  present  conditions,  problems, 
and  activities  are  of  use  in  so  far  as  they  assist  in  this 
process.  History  is  from  this  point  of  view  a  value  in 
itself,  worthy  of  being  controlled  for  its  own  sake. 

When  history  is  studied  as  an  instrument  it  is  considered 
to  be  of  value  chiefly  because  it  provides  one  means  of 
interpreting  the  present.  Only  those  situations  and  facts 
in  the  past  will  be  selected  for  discussion  which  have  close 
bearing  upon  the  present.  They  must,  of  course,  be  real- 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       73 

ized.  They  must  be  built  up,  but  only  to  a  degree  suffi- 
cient to  throw  light  upon  modern  institutions  and  problems. 

Whichever  view  of  history  is  adopted,  we  are  warranted 
in  saying  that  in  both  the  past  and  the  present  there  are 
values  to  be  controlled,  and  that  each  generation  devised 
means  of  securing  this  control.  Hence,  in  both  past  and 
present  the  race  has  been  busy  solving  problems,  and  every 
situation  in  history  may  be  viewe'd  as  an  attempt  to  solve 
one  or  several  problems  with  the  data  which  that  particular 
group  of  people  had  at  hand.  Moreover,  many  of  these 
problems  are  common  to  both  past  and  present. 

The  problem  of  government  is  of  this  perennial  type. 
Each  generation  has  tried  to  find  a  better  solution  than 
that  of  its  predecessor,  and  in  turn. has  left  its  work  as  a 
heritage  to  the  generation  which  followed.  In  fact,  all 
the  great  problems  of  society  are  continuous,  and  by  follow- 
ing them  from,  their  early  beginnings  we  can  see  how  their 
solutions  have  been  evolved,  and  how  the  problems  them- 
selves have  been  modified  by  changing  conditions.  By 
tracing  these  problems  from  their  fundamental  form,  while 
keeping  constantly  in  view  the  present  form  of  the  solution? 
there  is  little  danger  of  restricting  the  function  of  history 
to  the  realization  of  the  past,  and  thereby  destroying  much 
good  that  could  be  gained  from  it. 

Pedagogical  Applications. — If,  when  we  discuss  move- 
ments and  institutions,  we  view  them  as  solutions  of  prob- 
lems, and  if  we  think  of  each  situation  in  history  as  having 
some  problem  within  it,  we  bring  the  history  more  vividly 
into  the  lives  of  pupils  than  if  we  view  the  situation  as 
merely  collections  of  facts.  The  element  of  reason  and 
judgment  then  enters  to  illuminate  or  vivify  the  content  of 
memory  and  imagination.  Then  we  may  view  the  conti- 
nuity of  history  as  a  continuity  of  these  problems,  the 


74  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

problem  and  solution  being  affected  in  each  situation  by 
the  entrance  of  such  new  factors  as  make  changes  necessary. 
(See  Chapter  XV.) 

Influence  of  Pupils  Upon  Function. — In  the  last  chap- 
ter we  stated  that  function  varied  with  pupils.  This  is 
well  brought  out  in  history.  As  has  been  said,  the  func- 
tion of  history  is  to  solve  present  problems  by  a  relation  to 
the  past.  This  holds  in  all  grades,  but  the  sort  of  problem 
solved  varies.  In  the  primary  grades,  history  (isolated 
stories)  is  studied  to  help  solve  moral  problems — George 
Washington  and  his  little  hatchet — or  to  explain  how  com- 
mon tools  have  come  to  be,  as  the  bow  and  arrow,  the 
spade,  etc.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  the  function  may 
be  to  solve  problems  and  satisfy  needs  for  violent  and  bloody 
death  and  perilous  adventure.  In  the  high  school,  perhaps, 
the  problem  becomes  a  political  one.  Thus  the  problem 
varies  from  grade  to  grade,  and  the  intrinsic  function 
changes  with  it — changes  not  in  abstract  statement,  which 
remains  the  same,  but  in  the  concrete  content,  which  varies 

from  year  to  year. 

• 

SECTION   4.     GEOGRAPHY 

The  intrinsic  function  of  geography  is  to  give  control  of 
values  through  the  place  concept.  When  the  urchin  says, 
"The  jam  jar  is  in  the  pantry,"  he  is  using  place  to  control 
the  value  called  jam.  When  the  tourist,  driving  across 
country,  learns  that  dinner  may  be  had  at  Crossroads,  he 
has  received  the  assistance  of  geography.  Oranges  in  Flo- 
rida, wheat  in  Alberta,  whales  in  the  southern  Pacific,  and 
tea  in  Japan  are  all  cases  in  which  values — oranges,  wheat, 
whales,  tea — are  controlled  by  place  in  so  far  as  place  can 
control  them. 

Geography  is  of  two  sorts.     It  tells  us  where  values  are 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       75 

located,  and,  more  recently,  the  "new  geography"  has  been 
attempting  to  explain  why,  in  terms  of  place  characteristics, 
they  are  located  there.  Geography  tells  us  that  oranges 
grow  in  Florida  and  California;  and,  in  addition,  endeavors 
to  show,  in  terms  of  the  climatic  and  physiographic  fea- 
tures of  Florida  and  California,  why  oranges  g.row  there. 

In  order,  then,  to  use  geography,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
place  in  which  values  are  found  be  thoroughly  understood. 
And  this  understanding  of  places  is  given  by  physical  geog- 
raphy, whose  function,  then,  becomes  that  of  analyzing  the 
place  concept.  In  other  words,  physical  geography  deals 
with  the  physical  features  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  is 
divided  into  physiography  and  climatology. 

Hence,  to  repeat,  we  make  geography  when  we  take 
anything  we  desire  to  control  and  investigate  (i)  where  it 
can  be  found,  or  (2)  why,  in  terms  of  climate  and  physio- 
graphic conditions,  it  is  found  there.  For  instance,  the 
geography  of  prunes  would  be  found  in  a  statement  of 
where  they  grow  and  the  conditions  of  climate  and  land 
conformation  that  are  essential  to  their  growth. 

It  is  evident  that  when  we  study  the  industries  of  a  city 
we  are  not  necessarily  studying  geography.  It  becomes  a 
geographic  study  only  when  we  explain  in  terms  of  climate 
and  position  why  they  are  there.  We  could  just  as  easily 
have  sociological  or  economic  studies  of  the  industries. 
When  the  races  of  men  are  studied  we  are  not  necessarily 
studying  geography.  It  becomes  a  geographical  study  only 
when  we  explain  in  terms  of  climate  and  land  conformation 
why  the  races  have  their  differentiated  characteristics 
When  we  study  the  wealth,  commerce,  and  industries  of  a 
country,  this  in  itself  does  not  constitute  geography.  It 
becomes  a  geographical  study  only  when  we  endeavor  to 
explain  the  wealth,  commerce,  and  industries  in  terms  of 


76  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

climate  and  physiographic  conditions.  And,  lastly,  when  we 
study  the  products  of  a  country,  it  becomes  geography  only 
when  we  explain  these  products  in  terms  of  their  physical 
environment. 

A  careful  study  of  some  geography  text-books  with  this 
idea  of  geography  in  mind  will  show  that  much  contained 
in  them  is  not  geography.  There  are  explanations  of  how 
different  products  are  cultivated  and  harvested;  the  races 
of  the  world  are  described.  The  first  of  these  is  a  study  of 
industries,  the  second  of  sociology.  Because  of  the  intro- 
duction of  so  much  non-geographical  matter  into  the  texts, 
geography  has  been  called  the  scrap-basket  of  the  sciences. 
But  while  it  is  not  geography,  it  is  certain  that  much  of 
this  material  can  be  better  treated  in  geography  texts  than 
elsewhere.  Consequently,  it  is  legitimate  to  have  it  inserted 
there.  And,  so  far  as  practicable,  the  material  should  be 
treated  from  the  standpoint  of  geography.  However,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  teacher  to  distinguish  between  what  is 
and  what  is  not  geography  in  the  texts. 

The  practical  value  of  the  "new  geography,"  which  ex- 
plains in  terms  of  physical  environment  why  things  are 
found  at  certain  places,  is  great.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  uses  it  zealously  in  the  follow- 
ing way:  They  have  experts  traveling  all  over  the  world 
trying  to  find  new  and  valuable  food  products.  When  these 
are  found,  the  conditions  of  temperature,  moisture,  length 
of  season,  etc.,  are  carefully  investigated.  Then  the  De- 
partment picks  out,  if  it  can,  places  in  this  country  where 
these  conditions  are  approximately  the  same,  and  attempts 
to  grow  some  of  the  newly  discovered  varieties  there.  If 
the  conditions  are  identical,  the  plants  thrive  and  the  new 
food  product  is  added  to  the  list  of  domestic  products. 

Very  interesting  geographical   studies  can   be  made  by 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       77 

pupils  who  have  this  information  at  hand.  For  instance, 
pupils  can,  when  furnished  with  the  proper  data,  figure  out 
the  probability  of  growing  tea  successfully  in  Illinois,  cot- 
ton in  Nebraska,  tobacco  in  Manitoba,  wheat  in  the  Amazon 
valley,  cherries  in  Brazil,  etc.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to 
know  (i)  the  conditions  under  which  these  products  grow, 
and  (2)  whether  or  not  the  localities  selected  have  these 
conditions. 

Pupils  Affect  Intrinsic  Function. — As  in  history,  the 
type  of  problem  which  is  solved  by  a  reference  to  place 
varies  from  year  to  year.  The  primary  children  are  inter- 
ested in  the  locality  of  things  of  value  in  their  immediate 
environment — place  geography.  So  also  the  boy  of  eleven 
or  twelve  sees  in  his  geography  a  setting  for  his  deeds  of 
adventure.  In  the  higher  grades  only  does  he  to  any  marked 
extent  come  to  see  geography  as  the  relation  of  these  things 
of  value  to  place.  The  rational  function  of  geography  is 
then  for  the  first  time  understood. 

SECTION  5.     SUBJECTS  IN  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  intrinsic  instrumental  function  of  subjects  is  best 
brought  out,  and  most  easily  used,  in  the  lower  grades, 
before  the  subjects  have  crystallized.  To  be  sure,  in  some 
ultra-conservative  schools  we  find  the  children  studying 
arithmetic,  reading,  phonics,  spelling,  drawing,  and  con- 
struction work  each  in  separate  periods  in  the  first  two 
grades.  But  in  progressive  schools  the  subjects  are  fluent 
and  one  cannot  always  tell  in  the  lower  grades  where  one 
period  ends  and  the  other  begins. 

Arithmetic. — It  is  a  matter  of  common  occurrence  for 
arithmetic  to  be  used  for  its  elemental  purpose.  A  game 
is  played.  To  record  it  and  to  select  the  victor,  recourse 
must  be  made  to  notation  and  addition.  A  snow-shoe  is 


78  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  be  made  of  such  and  such  a  length,  and  denominate 
numbers  are  used.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  to  be  divided  and 
fractions  occur.  In  all  of  these  cases  the  intrinsic  function 
is  obvious  and  appealing.  The  purpose  is  seen  and  the  need 
is  felt. 

Later  on,  in  the  fourth  and  succeeding  years,  the  sub- 
ject is,  perhaps,  studied  in  isolation,  and  the  instrumental 
purpose  of  the  subject-matter  for  situations  outside  the 
subject  is  not  so  easily  seen — perhaps  cannot  be  seen  when 
learned.  For  instance,  it  may  be  difficult  to  show  why  the 
multiplication  tables  should  be  studied  for  any  other  reason 
than  that  "they  should  be."  And  I  think  the  best  attitude 
to  take  is  this :  You  are  studying  arithmetic,  you  have  done 
addition,  but  are  slow.  Let  us  shorten  the  process.  The 
method  of  shortening  is  by  multiplication,  which  does  it  in 
this  way. 

An  ingenious  teacher,  however,  can  make  concrete  the 
need  for  multiplication  by  utilizing  situations  in  which 
multiplication  will  actually  save  time,  as,  for  instance,  in 
keeping  score  where  the  teacher  decreases  the  time  for 
summation  to  such  short  duration  that  multiplication  may 
be  introduced  as  a  heaven-sent  device. 

Reading. — Action  work  in  primary  reading  shows 
beautifully  the  utilization  of  the  intrinsic  function.  For, 
since  pupils  love  to  be  physically  active,  they  read  and 
watch  with  interest  when  they  understand  that  the  only  way 
•  to  discover  what  to  do  is  locked  up  in  words  to  be  read. 
"Roll  the  ball,  Harry,"  contains  a  value  which  some  one 
wishes  to  possess.  If  Harry  does  not  know  his  own  name, 
or  the  words  ball  or  roll,  he  cannot  perform  the  action. 
Hence,  he  reads,  realizing  the  intrinsic  function.  Later  he 
may  read  from  habit  or  necessity,  but  now  he  realizes  its 
place. 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       79 

Literature. — Literature  shows  this  same  characteristic 
very  clearly.  The  general  statement  of  the  function  remains 
the  same,  but  the  objects  around  which  it  centers  vary. 
For  little  children  the  function  of  literature  has  to  do  with 
games  and  fairies  and  rhymes.  Later  these  change  to  ad- 
venture, later  to  strongly  emotional  lines  during  adolescence, 
and  only  to  highly  reasoned  problems  later. 

The  teacher,  then,  cannot  settle  the  intrinsic  function  of 
subject-matter  for  teaching  purposes  until  he  has  found  out 
the  peculiar  problems  and  characteristics  of  the  pupils  who 
will  use  the  material.  This  phase  of  the  subject  will  be 
discussed  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  the  reader  is  advised  to  read 
the  section  on  Stages  of  Development  in  connection  with 
this  section. 

What  holds  true  for  these  subjects  holds  true  for  all. 
Unfortunate  it  is  that,  as  the  work  progresses  further,  we 
become  so  much  the  victims  of  isolation  and  formalism  in 
subject-matter  that  this  close  relationship  between  school 
work  and  practical  work  is  lost  or  so  largely  disappears. 

SECTION  6.     OTHER  SUBJECTS 

The  intrinsic  function  of  painting  is  (i)  the  communi- 
cation of  values  through  color  and  forms  (2)  between 
persons  having  a  like  appreciation  of  these  values,  but  (3) 
possessing  different  levels  of  control.  The  intrinsic  func- 
tion of  music  may  be  secured  by  substituting  for  "color 
and  form"  the  words  "consonant  sounds."  The  intrinsic 
function  of  basketry  is  to  make  baskets,  of  carpentry  to 
make  articles  from  wood,  of  cooking  is  to  provide  nutritious 
food  by  means  of  heat,  and  of  millinery  to  produce  women's 
hats.  The  intrinsic  function  of  foreign  languages  is  to' 
give  us  control  of  values  which  cannot  be  secured  in  our 
own  language  (as,  for  instance,  by  translations). 


80  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Foreign  Languages. — The  foreign  languages  have  a 
peculiar  place  in  national  life  and  deserve  a  few  words  by 
way  of  analysis  of  the  function  stated.  We  study  foreign 
languages  because  there  is  a  spirit  of  nationality — the 
Roman  spirit,  the  French  atmosphere^— which  cannot  be 
secured  in  translation;  because  valuable  information  needed 
in  the  prosecution  of  affairs  can  be  found  only  in  the 
German,  the  French,  etc.,  not  yet  having  been  translated; 
and  because  in  contact  with  foreigners  we  cannot  perform 
our  intentions  without  our  being  able  to  get  information 
from  them  or  to  give  information  to  them.*  Sometimes  a 
student  of  English  grammatical  forms  receives  assistance 
from  a  study  of  the  cognate  forms  in  other  languages;  but 
this  value  is  not  very  important  in  the  life  of  the  average 
pupil  and  the  usefulness  of  the  foreign  language  for  this 
purpose  is  not  sufficient  to  make  it  an  intrinsic  function. 

All  other  values,  such  as  training  in  exactness,  etc.,  are 
indirect  functions  and  can  present  no  adequate  justification 
for  the  study  of  the  foreign  languages. 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  unless  a  study  of  a  foreign 
language  is  carried  far  enough  to  get  the  student  into  the 
spirit  of  a  foreign  people,  to  give  him  a  reading  knowledge 
so  that  he  can  get  what  he  wants  from  its  written  docu- 
ments, or  to  give  him  a  speaking  knowledge  so  that  he 
can  converse  with  foreigners  unable  to  converse  in  his 
tongue  when  he  meets  them,  there  is  no  adequate  justifica- 
tion for  the  study  of  a  foreign  language.  Moreover,  if  the 
student's  adult  occupation  is  not  likely  to  require  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  written  or  spoken  language,  there  is  no  justi- 
fication for  its  study  from  that  point  of  view.  In  fact,  the 
study  of  a  foreign  language  should  not  be  required  of  pupils 
in  the  high  school  in  the  average  American  community.  A 
Student  may  take  it  as  an  elective  but  to  require  it  is  to 


INTRINSIC  FUNCTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER       gl 

require  something  that  may  have  little  intrinsic  usefulness. 
The  discipline  in  exactness,  etc.,  can  be  secured  in  the 
prosecution  of  subjects  more  generally  useful. 

The  function  of  physics  is  to  control  values  by  means  of 
the  "force"  concept,  of  chemistry  by  means  of  the  concept 
of  ultimate  (chemical)  elements,  of  zoology  by  means  of 
the  concept  of  animal  life,  of  botany  by  means  of  the  con- 
cept of  plant  life,  and  of  sociology  by  means  of  the  concept 
of  society. 

Students  are  advised  to  work  out  the  intrinsic  function 
of  each  of  the  subjects  with  which  they  have  to  deal  di- 
rectly or  indirectly. 

EXERCISES 

I.  (a)  Show  how  botany  and  zoology  have  undergone 
changes  due  to  the  theory  of  evolution,  (b)  Why  is  it 
that  books  on  any  of  the  sciences  become  out  of  date  so 
rapidly? 

2.  Why  is  Shakespeare  read  now  by  so  many  people 
when   Marlowe   and    Greene,   who  were   very   popular   in 
Shakespeare's  time,  are  so  little  read  now? 

3.  Observe  a  child  for  an  hour  and  note  instances  of 
the   occurrence    of   permanent   and   transitory   needs   and 
problems. 

4.  Recall  ten  minutes  of  your  own  life  recently  and 
note  the  transitory  problems  that  have  occurred. 

5.  Give  a  list  of  ten  topics  for  compositions  that  would 
appeal  to  you  as  being  the  most  interesting  you  could  write 
upon  for  a  sympathetic  audience. 

6.  Name  five  topics  you  would  be  delighted  to  have 
some  one  who  is  equipped  write  upon  for  you.    Could  com- 
position topics  be  provided  in  this  way — that  is,  by  having 
pupils  state  ones  they  would  like  to  have  some  one  write 


82  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

upon  and  assigning  these  to  some  other  pupils  who  think 
they  are  fairly  competent  to  write  upon  them? 

7.  Give  five  instances  in  which  the  desire  for  the  ap- 
proval of  the  teacher  was  no  motive  for  particular  pupils. 

8.  Give  an  instance  in  which  a  strong  motive  for  a 
composition  was  secured  by  having  pupils  give  their  indi- 

.vidual  interpretation  of  a  bit  of  subject-matter  known  in 
common  by  a  class. 

9.  Why  is  it  that  when  you  ask  some  pupils  to  write 
original  compositions,  they  ask  you  to  set  a  topic  for  them? 
How  would  you  cure  the  difficulty? 

10.  Select  five   well-known  stories  and  show  that  the 
writer  presented  a  problem  which  the  characters  by  their 
action  solved. 

11.  Give  five  cases  in  which  meaning  was  made  obscure 
or  incorrect  because  of  faulty  spelling;  five  others  where 
the  same  thing  occurred  because  of  incorrect  punctuation ; 
also  five  where  illegible  writing  produced  disastrous  or  comic 
results. 

12.  Name  five  great  problems  that  mankind  throughout 
its  history  has  continually  been  trying  to  solve.    Name  five 
problems  that  were  peculiar  to  the  nineteenth  century  in  the 
United  States. 

13.  Give  ten  examples  of  the  simple  place-geography  of 
a  five-year-old  child. 

14.  State  the  intrinsic  specific  function  of  all  subjects  in 
a  course  of  study  not  discussed  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE  STBUCTUBE   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER 

When  there  is  some  need  to  be  satisfied,  subject-matter 
is  created  or  an  attempt  is  made  to  create  subject-matter 
which  will  satisfy  the  need.  It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that 
this  subject-matter  must  be  organized  in  some  way  and 
the  more  logically  the  better. 

Definition. — A  structure  is  defined  as  an  organization 
of  parts  or  elements  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  fulfilling 
some  function.  That  is  to  say,  if  we  consider  a  unit  of 
subject-matter,  as  for  instance  a  lead  pencil,  the  parts  are 
lead,  wood,  and  probably  rubber.  Let  us  suppose  tRe  func- 
tion of  the  pencil  is  to  carry  on  the  writing  process  with 
ease.  Evidently  the  organization  and  the  parts  selected 
must  be  determined  by  this  end.  The  lead  must  be  not  too 
soft  nor  too  hard.  In  one  case  it  would  require  frequent 
sharpening  (not  conducive  to  ease)  ;  in  the  other  case,  the 
fingers  must  press  too  hard  and  at  the  expense  of  ease. 
Wood  is  put  outside  in  order  to  protect  the  fingers  from 
being  discolored,  to  make  the  surface  large  enough  to  be 
grasped  easily  and  to  keep  the  brittle  graphite  from  break- 
ing (thus  saving  trouble).  The  rubber  is  attached  at  the 
end  in  order  to  avoid  the  picking  up  of  an  eraser  which  may 
easily  be  lost. 

Parts  and  Organization. — We  are  well  acquainted 
with  the  organization  of  parts  in  the  "outline."  When 
an  outline  is  made,  the  purpose  lis  to  present  in  compact 

83 


84  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

form  the  most  important  parts  of  the  structure.  First 
comes  the  statement  of  the  function,  sometimes  called  the 
"topic."  And  then  follows  the  outline,  or  structure. 

The  topic  is  always  the  solution  of  some  problem  or  the 
satisfaction  of  some  need.  For  instance,  the  topic  An 
Ostrich  Hunt  is  the  attempt  to  solve  the  problem,  "How 
is  the  ostrich  hunted  ?"  The  solution  is  as  follows : 

Because  of  the  ostrich's  swiftness  many  devices  have  to 
be  used  in  hunting  it. 

(a)  In  South  Africa  they  are  hunted  in  some  places  by 
horsemen  who  seek  to  tire  them  down. 

(b)  The  Bushmen  build  an  imitation  ostrich  upon  their 
shoulders  and  thus  are  able  to  approach  close  enough  to 
shoot  them  with  poisoned  arrows. 

We  meet  in  arithmetic,  also,  with  the  organization  of 
parts  to  carry  out  a  function.  The  problem,  Find  the  cost 
of  constructing  out  of  inch  lumber  a  box  4  ft.  long,  2 
ft.  wide  and  i  ft.  deep,  inside  measurements,  without  a 
top,  lumber  costing  $25.00  a  thousand,  has  the  following 
organization  for  its  solution: 

Area  of  sides  =  2  X  4i  X  i  X  i  bd.  ft.  =  8J  bd.  ft. 
Area  of  ends  =  2X2  X  i  X  i  bd.  ft.  =  4  bd.'ft. 
Area  of  bottom  =  4^  X  2$  X  i  bd.  ft.  =  9  ^  bd.  ft. 


Total  = 
1000  bd.  ft.  cost  $25.00. 
2ijf  bd.  ft.  cost.  2i|f  /iooo  of  $25.00  =  53c. 

Structure  and  Logic. — It  is  a  truism  that  every  unit 
of  subject-matter  that  is  well  constructed  is  logical  in  its 
construction.  This  means,  first,  that  every  part  included 
in  the  organization  must  be  relevant  to  the  function  of  the 
whole.  As  an  example  of  a  poor  structure  the  following 


.  STRUCTURE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  85 

may  be  cited.     A  lesson  upon  The  Benefits  of  Commerce* 
has  the  following  structure : 

1.  It  enables  us  to  exchange  things  we  have  but  do  not  need, 
for  other  things  which  we  need,  but  do  not  have. 

(a)  Southern    cotton    growers   have   more   cotton   than 
they  need,  but  do  not  manufacture  cloth.     The  New 
England  States  manufacture  cotton  cloth  but  do  not 
have  the  raw  cotton.     Hence  an  exchange  is  a  benefit. 

(b)  Tea  grows  plentifully  in  China  and  sugar  in  the 
West  Indies.     We  do  not  raise  these,  but  we  do  raise 
many  things  which  the  Chinese  and  West  Indians  do 
not  raise  so  easily,  and  so  an  exchange  is  of  advan- 
tage to  both. 

2.  Water  is  very  useful  for  commerce, 
(a)   Cheaper  way  of  transportation  : 

(1)  ships  carry  larger  loads  than  wagons, 

(2)  ships   float   and   therefore   require  little   force  to 
move  them, 

(3)  this  is  realized  as  a  reason  for  constructing  canals. 

3.  Railroads  are  of  use  in  transporting  commercial  com- 
modities. 

•y 

The  first  division  is  relevant  but  the  second  and  third 
are  not.  They  deal  with  "facilities  for  transportation,"  or 
some  such  question.  If  the  author  desired  to  keep  them 
in  his  organization,  he  should  have  shown  how  they  are 
benefits  flowing  from  commerce. 

Second.  All  the  parts  most  relevant  to  the  function 
must  be  included.  Here  an  illustration  may  be  taken  from 
any  machine.  Suppose  in  a  sewing  machine  the  needle  is 

1  Sander's  Third  Reader   (1853).  PP-  87-8. 


86  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

lacking,  then  the  functioning  of  the  machine  will  be  im- 
possible. Again,  when  the  problem  arises,  Shall  I  buy 
these  curtains  for  my  window?  When  I  organize  all  the 
facts  and  parts  I  may  bring  in  cost,  weight,  etc.,  but  leave 
out  the  question  of  harmony  of  color  with  the  paper  in  the 
room.  This  may  invalidate  the  whole  organization.  In 
choosing  a  business  partner  I  may,  in  thinking  it  over, 
consider  his  honesty,  sympathy,  physical  fitness,  etc.,  and 
because  I  fail  to  think  of  his  lack  of  aggressiveness  the 
purpose  of  the  partnership  may  be  defeated. 

Pedagogical  Hints. — To  help  the  reader  to  find  the 
function  of  any  unit  of  written  subject-matter  several  de- 
vices are  used  by  writers. 

First.  Frequently  it  is  indicated  in  the  title.  TKe  Benefits 
of  Commerce,  An  Ostrich  Hunt,  The  Origin  of  Species, 
Hou*  I7  almond  Came  to  Pontiac,  The  History  of  England, 
etc.,  all  indicate  function  in  a  general  way.  Sometimes, 
however,  little  assistance  is  given  by  the  title.  Macbeth, 
Sandolphin,  Lady  Clara  Vere  de  Vere  do  not  indicate  in 
any  exact  way  what  is  to  be  the  specific  function  of  the 
selection. 

Second.  The  introduction  to  a  selection  and  the  topical 
sentence  of  a  paragraph  frequently  give  specific  assistance 
in  finding  the  function. 

Third.  Certain  devices  are  used  in  text-books,  such  as 
subject  headings  and  marginal  headings.  Considerable 
use  of  all  three  of  these  devices  is  made  throughout  this 
text,  as  a  rapid  leafing  of  the  pages  will  show. 

Fourth.  It  should  be  noted  that,  particularly  in  litera- 
ture and  music  and  art,  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  ade- 
quately express  the  function  in  words.  Critics  who  try  to 
do  so  do  not  always  agree,  and  probably  the  creator  of  the 
work  could  not  state  its  precise  function.  The  thing  he 


STRUCTURE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  87 

wishes  to  express  may  be  so  large,  so  indefinable,  or  so 
largely  a  matter  of  feeling  that  one  statement  will  not  do 
it  justice.  Indeed,  the  fact  that  literary  criticism  frowns 
upon  the  moral  at  the  end  of  a  poem,  and  the  fact  that  art 
critics  object  to  the  title's  being  too  specific  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  it  is  not  always  wise  to  try  to  state  the  function 
even  when  it  might  be  done. 

Academically  this  is  correct.  Practically  in  dealing 
with  immature  children  the  teacher  makes  no  serious  mis- 
take in  giving  what  seems  to  be  the  best  statement  of 
function,  and  in  then  organizing  the  work  of  art  to  show 
how  the  function  is  fulfilled.  This  course  does  not  mean 
that  he  need  show  the  subtleties  of  technique  by  which  the 
result  was  secured,  but  rather  to  lay  bare  the  main  divisions 
of  content,  going  into  detail  as  far  as  the  maturity  of  the 
students  will  warrant.  Outside  of  the  aesthetic  field,  there 
is  usually  little  difficulty  and  there  is  no  objection  to  stating 
the  function  in  concise  form.  Illustrations  are  given  in  the 
preceding  chapters. 

Explicit  .Relations.— In    making    an    outline    of    the 
structure,  it  is  well  for  teachers  to  make  the  relation  of 
parts   to  the  central   function  explicit.     It  is  not  always 
sufficient  to  merely  have  the  relation  in  mind;  to  ensure 
the    proper    teaching   of   the    relations    it    is   advisable   to 
actually  state  them.     As  an  illustration  the  two  following 
forms  of  outline  may  be  given.     Let  us  suppose  that  the 
function  of  a   study  of  English  history  is  "to  show  the 
formation  of  a  popular  national  government  of  a  repre- 
sentative character."    The  outline  may  be  made  as  follows : 
I.     Anglo-Saxon  government  (to  1066). 
II.     Norman  and  early  Plantagenet  government  (1066- 
1215). 

III.     Later  Plantagenet  government  (1215-1485). 


88  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

IV.     Tudor  government   (1485-1603). 
V.     Stuart  government  (1603-1688). 
VI.     Modern  English  government  (i688-date). 

Or  it  may  be  made  in  this  way,  which  differs  from  the 
foregoing  in  that  the  function  of  each  subdivision  in  rela- 
tion to  the  function  of  the  whole  is  stated;  i.  e.,  is  made 
explicit : 

Function:  To  show  the  formation  of  a  national  popu- 
lar government  of  a  representative  character. 

Structure:  I.  Anglo-Saxon  government  (to  1066), 
which  shows  in  the  earliest  form  of  the  government  strong 
local  and  weak  central  institutions. 

II.  Norman  and  Early  Plantagenet  government  (1066- 
1215),   which  describes  the   establishment  of  a  monarchy 
so  strong  that  it  overrides  the  local  institutions. 

III.  Later  Plantagenet  government  (1215-1485),  which 
describes  the  rise  of  parliament  but  its  failure  to  control 
the  monarchy. 

IV.  Tudor  government  (1475-1603),  whose' significance 
is  that  in  this  period  the  people  acquiesce  in  a  strong  mon- 
archy because  of  commercial  and  religious  interests. 

V.  Stuart    government    (1603-1688).      This    describes 
the  victory  of  parliament  over  an  absolute  monarchy,  and 
the  definite  establishment  of  a  constitutional  monarchy. 

VI.  Modern  English  government  (1688  to  date),  which 
exemplifies  the  manner  in  which  a  strong  central  govern- 
ment is  based  on  strong  local  institutions. 

A  statement  of  this  latter  sort  made  by  the  teacher  will 
convince  him  as  nothing  else  will  that  he  has  a  logical 
organization.  With  such  a  statement  he  will  be  in  less 
danger  of  going  astray  in  his  work  from  day  to  day.  And 
this  is  the  more  certain  if  the  principle  is  applied  also  to 


STRUCTURE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  89 

divisions  subsidiary  to  these  main  divisions.  Here  the  same 
procedure  should  be  followed.  The  relation  of  the  central 
theme  should  be  stated  clearly.  Let  us  choose  any  one  of 
the  divisions  stated  above  and  make  an  outline  for  it,  giving 
the  function  of  each  subdivision  as  follows: 
V.  The  Stuart  Government. 

Function:  To  show  ho\v  absolutism  was  overthrown  and 
a  constitutional  government  was  definitely  established 
by  the  people  of  England  (as  one  of  the  steps  by  which 
a  strong  national  government  of  representative  charac- 
ter was  established). 
'Structure: 

1.  The  Crown  and  Parliament  (1603-1640).    Its  sig- 
nificance is  that  it  throws  into  strong  relief  the  oppo- 
sition between  the  royal  prerogative  and  constitutional 
power. 

2.  The  Privy  Council.  This  exemplifies  a  method  by 
which  the  executive  tried  to  make  itself  stronger  than 
parliament. 

3.  The  Constitutional  Resolution  (1460-1649).   This 
is  the  violent  demonstration  by  parliament  of  its  right 
to  control  the  monarchy. 

4.  Military  Despotism  (1649-1660).   Its  significance 
is  that  in  the  throes  of  readjustment  the  parliament 
was  supplanted  by  a  military  despotism. 

5.  The  Restoration  Government  (1660-1668).    This 
exemplifies  the  unwilling  compliance  of  the  monarchy 
with  constitutional  forms. 

Such  a  statement  as  this,  in  so  far  as  it  is  explicitly 
a  statement  of  the  bearing  of  each  subhead  upon  the  func- 
tion of  the  large  division  and  upon  the  function  of  the 
whole  organization,  will,  as  said  above,  help  the  teacher 
to  get  the  proper  perspective.  It  wrill  keep  him  from  intro- 


90  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ducing  irrelevant  material,  and  from  emphasizing  unim- 
portant points  in  the  history. 

For  the  direction  of  students  in  making  outlines  it  is  well 
to  call  the  main  divisions  of  a  structure  the  divisions  to  the 
first  degree  and  the  subdivisions  of  these  divisions  to  the 
second  degree,  etc.  Thus,  of  the  last  two  outlines  the  first 
is  an  outline  to  the  first  degree,  and  the  last  is  an  outline  of 
one  division  to  the  second  degree. 

Relativity  of  Function  and  Structure. — The  structure 
varies  with  the  function.  For  instance,  if  we  make  the 
function  of  American  history  the  portrayal  of  deeds  of 
heroism,  we  would  naturally  organize  a  structure  upon  that 
basis.  We  would  select  all  the  deeds  of  heroism  and  would 
neglect  other  facts.  But,  if  the  function  is  made  that  of 
showing  the  organization  of  independent  local  governments 
into  a  strong  federal  government,  we  would  select  our  facts 
from  a  different  basis.  Many  of  the  facts  that  would  be 
used  in  the  former  case  would  be  omitted  in  the  latter 
.case;  many  others  would  be  added,  and  each  would  have 
an  emphasis  placed  upon  it  in  harmony  with  the  function. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  function  is  dependent  upon  the 
structure.  For  instance,  in  American  history  we  cannot 
make  the  function  that  of  showing  the  growth  of  Oriental 
despotism,  because  the  facts  cannot  fulfill  that  function. 
And  likewise,  it  is  a  sad  wrenching  of  the  structure  to  make 
the  study  of  literature  that  of  exemplifying  rules  of  gram- 
mar. The  poem  was  not  intended  for  that;  the  structure 
will  not  bear  such  a  function  without  destroying  itself. 
Again,  we  cannot  use  a  feather  to  drive  nails.  The  feather 
can  be  made  to  serve  only  those  functions  which  are  con- 
sonant with  its  structure. 

Units  of  Subject-Matter. — The  term  "unit"  is  used 
in  connection  with  subject-matter  to  indicate  a  relatively 


STRUCTURE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  91 

distinct  portion  of  a  subject.  We  speak  of  each  unit  of 
subject-matter  as  being  an  instrument  designed  for  a  specific 
purpose.  But  the  difficulty  is  that  the  term  may  be  applied 
in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to  confusion.  For  instance,  in 
the  illustration  in  English  history  given  above,  we  have 
six  units  in  the  whole.  But  we  may  also  use  the  term  in 
describing  the  subdivisions  under  V,  and  state  that  these 
are  five  units. 

Groups. — We  cannot  speak  of  the  smaller  units  as 
recitations,  because  frequently  two  or  three  recitations  may 
be  occupied  in  the  study  of  one  unit.  Hence  probably  the 
best  we  can  do  is  to  use  the  term  "group"  for  these  larger 
divisions,  and  the  term  "unit"  for  the  smallest  units  that 
are  taken  up  as  relatively  complete  and  distinct  divisions. 
In  the  subject  just  referred  to  we  may  then  say  that  there 
are  six  groups,  and  five  units  in  the  fifth  group. 

Units  and  Recitations. — Usually  one  recitation  is  taken 
up  with  one  unit.  Frequently  several  recitations  are  needed 
to  get  control  of  one  unit.  Sometimes  two  units  or  more 
may  be  taken  up  in  one  recitation.  No  rule  can  be  laid 
down  as  to  the  amount  of  subject-matter  to  be  covered 
in  a  recitation,  unless  the  one  who  makes  the  rule  knows 
the  class  and  the  subject-matter. 

EXERCISES 

By  function  is  here  meant  the  intrinsic  function. 

1.  State  the  function  and  structure  of  some  particular 
safety  pin,  house  slipper,  corkscrew,  chair,  match,  waste- 
paper  basket,  and  comb. 

2.  In  what  respects  may  each  of  these  be  poor  struc- 
tures by  not  having  necessary  elements? 

3.  In  what  respects  may  each  of  these  be  poor  struc- 
tures because  they  have  unnecessary  elements? 


92  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

4.  Select  three   different   types   of  problem    in   arith- 
metic and  state  the  function  and  structure  of  each. 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  of  making  the  relations  of 
the  elements  of  the  structure  to  the  function  explicit? 

6.  Would  you  require  pupils  in  a  recitation  to  make 
each  element  explicit  always?    Why? 

7.  In  organizing  a  lesson  for  teaching,  is  it  necessary 
to   work   out   the   outline   into   divisions   beyond   the   first 
degree  ?    Why  ? 

8.  Take  a  text  and   divide  into  groups  to  the  third 
degree  of  division. 

9.  Divide  one  of  these  last  subdivisions  into  units. 
10.     Divide  this  subdivision  into  daily  lessons  and  indi- 
cate how  closely  the  daily  lessons  correspond  to  the  units 
in  size. 


CHAPTER   VI 

EXAMPLES   OF   FUNCTION   AND    STRUCTURE 

SECTION    i.     EVERY   UNIT   OF    SUBJECT-MATTER   HAS   A    FUNCTION 
WHICH  ITS  STRUCTURE  Is  ORGANIZED  TO  PERFORM 

Hygiene. — "And  now,  what  becomes  of  this  breath 
which  passes  from  your  lips  ?  Is  it  merely  harmful ;  merely 
waste?  God  forbid!  God  has  forbidden  that  anything 
should  be  merely  harmful  or  merely  waste  in  this  so  wise 
and  well-made  world.  The  carbonic  acid  which  passes 
from  your  lips  at  every  breath — ay,  even  that  which  oozes 
from  the  volcano  crater  when  the  eruption  is  past — is  a 
precious  boon  to  thousands  of  things  of  which  you  have 
daily  need.  Indeed  there  is  a  sort  of  hint  at  physical  truth 
in  the  old  fairy  tale  of  the  girl,  from  whose  lips,  as  she 
spoke,  fell  pearls  and  diamonds;  for  the  carbonic  acid  of 
your  breath  may  help  hereafter  to  make  the  pure  carbonate 
of  lime  of  a  pearl,  or  the  still  purer  carbon  of  a  diamond. 
Nay,  it  may  go — in  such  a  \Ajprld  of  transformation  do  we 
live — to  make  atoms  of  coal  strata,  which  shall  lie  buried 
for  ages  beneath  deep  seas,  shall  be  upheaved  in  continents 
which  are  yet  unborn,  and  there  be  burnt  for  the  use  of  a 
future  race  of  men,  and  resolved  in  their  original  elements." 

— Charles  Kingsley. 

Function:  The  function  of  this  subject-matter  is  to  answer 
the  question,  Is  breath  exhaled  merely  waste? 

Structure:   The  answer  is,  No.     The  reasons  for  it  are 
the  following: 

93 


94  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

1.  The  general  one,  that  it  is  not  according  to  the 

economy  of  God's  laws. 

2.  That  it  is  a  boon  to  nature.    This  is  illustrated  by 

stating  that  it  may  produce : 

(a)  vegetation, 

(b)  pearls, 

(c)  diamonds, 

(d)  coal. 

Literature. — From  CymbeKne,  by  Shakespeare. 

"Hark,  hark !  the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings, 

And  Phoebus  'gins  arise, 
His  steeds  to  water  at  those  springs 

On  chalic'd  flowers  that  lies; 
And  winking  Mary-buds  begin 

To  ope  their  golden  eyes ; 
With  everything  that  pretty  is, 

My  lady  sweet,  arise ; 
Arise,  arise !  " 

Function:   To  portray  the  state  of  mind  of  a  lover  in  his 
effort  to  awaken  his  lady-love. 

Structure:  This  may  be  analyzed  as  follows : 

1.  The  intellectual  content  is  expressed  in  his  argu- 

ments.   He  calls  her  to  awaken  because : 

(a)  the  lark  is  singing, 

(b)  the  sun  is  rising, 

(c)  the  flowers  are  opening, 

(d)  everything  that  is  pretty  is  rising, 

(e)  it  is  time,  therefore,  for  you  to  arise. 

2.  The  emotional  quality  is  expressed  as  follows : 

(a)  The  stimulating  beauty  and  the  joyousness 
of  the  morning,  as  felt  by  the  lover,  is 
expressed  by : 


FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE  95 

i.     The  magnificent  imagery  in  which  his 

arguments  are  clothed; 
ii.     The  exhilarating  rhythm, 
(b)     His  love  for  his  lady  is  suggested  in: 
i.     "With  everything  that  pretty  is," 
ii.     "My  lady  sweet." 

3.     The  keenness  of  his  desire  is  shown  by  the  use  of 
the  staccato  calls : 

(a)  "Hark,  hark!" 

(b)  "Arise,  arise!" 

Function  and  Structure  in  Arithmetic. — Arithmetic 
affords  an  excellent  example  of  units  of  subject-matter 
which  have  a  very  definite  function  and  a  very  definite 
structure.  For  instance,  if  we  start  with  the  function  of 
arithmetic,  and  state  it  to  be  the  providing  of  methods  for 
measuring  quantity,  we  can  at  once  see  how  the  different 
processes  assist  in  fulfilling  this  function.  For  example, 
the  function  of  addition  is  to  provide  a  means  for  securing 
the  sum  of  like  quantities.  The  function  of  multiplication 
is  to  provide  a  short  method  of  adding,  and  the  function 
of  the  multiplication  table  is  to  facilitate  the  process  of 
learning  the  multiplication  facts.  The  function  of  fractions 
is  to  provide  a  means  of  computing  quantities  whose  unit  is 
less  than  i ;  and  among  these  we  have  decimals  with  the 
function  of  providing  a  peculiar  and  easy  method  of  han- 
dling all  fractions  having  as  denominator  10  or  a  power 
of  10.  In  the  same  category  come  denominate  numbers 
whose  function  is  that  of  providing  a  method  of  handling 
quantities  whose  units  are  what  are  technically  known  as 
"measures."  Similarly,  percentage  has  as  its  function  the 
manipulation  of  certain  quantities  which  can  be  handled 
most  easily  by  computing  them  in  terms  of  100.  A  promis- 


96  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

sory  note  has  for  its  function  the  recording  definitely  in 
writing  of  a  promise  to  pay.  Interest  has  as  its  function 
the  computing,  of  the  amount  to  be  paid  for  the  sum  bor- 
rowed. In  the  same  way,  each  of  the  processes  of  arith- 
metic may  be  shown  to  be  a  tool  whose  function,  or  pur- 
pose, or  use  is  to  help  in  the  computation  of  arithmetical 
quantities. 

Furthermore,  each  of  these  processes  has  a  structure, 
that  is,  a  way  of  working  which  helps  to  carry  out  its 
function.  If  we  examine  addition  we  find  that  we  have 
integers  and  decimal  notation  to  carry  it  out.  Multiplica- 
tion is  constructed  with  its  integers,  its  decimal  notation, 
and  its  dependence  upon  memory  for  the  sums  of  certain 
like  quantities,  by  which  it  performs  efficiently  its  work  of 
shortening  addition.  Likewise,  the  promissory  note  has 
many  ways  of  safeguarding  the  transaction  of  borrowing 
money,  such  as  the  date  and  time  to  run,  the  rate  of  interest, 
the  amount  written  in  words  as  well  as  figures  to  avoid 
error,  and  the  signature  of  the  borrower.  These  which 
make  up  the  structure  of  the  promissory  note  all  help  to 
make  it  a  safe  method  of  recording  financial  transactions. 

And  so  with  every  process.  The  function  being  deter- 
mined, the  structure  follows  freely.  The  teacher  should  take 
every  process  in  arithmetic  and  view  it  in  this  functional 
way,  so  that  each  will  be  viewed  as  an  instrument  which 
has  its  own  peculiar  value  in  certain  surroundings.  For, 
just  as  the  tack  hammer  can  do  certain  work  better  than 
the  carpenter's  hammer,  so  the  carpenter's  hammer  can  do 
better  work  in  some  conditions  than  the  trip  hammer.  Each 
of  the  processes  of  arithmetic  has  its  own  peculiar  field  to 
work  in,  a  field  in  which  it  is  of  most  service  and  most 
easily  applicable.  Each  process  is  a  tool  just  as  much  as  a 


FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE  97 

hammer  is  a  tool.  And,  further,  just  as  the  tack  hammer 
has  one  kind  of  structure  because  its  function  is  to  drive 
tacks,  while  the  trip  hammer  has  another  structure  because 
its  function  is  to  crush  steel,  so  it  is  with  each  process  in 
arithmetic.  Each  has  its  own  way  of  acting,  its  own  struc- 
ture which  has  been  built  up  by  the  race  with  infinite  care 
to  perform  the  work  for  which  it  was  created. 
Spelling. — 

rare  worthless  willing 

exit  disperse  rejoicing 

plenty  sullen  separate 

advance  miser  money 

Function:  To  provide  an  exact  form  by  which  to  sym- 
bolize the  idea  for  which  each  word  stands.  Rare  has 
thus  the  function  of  symbolizing  the  idea  "rare."  Exit 
has  the  function  of  symbolizing  the  idea  "exit,"  etc. 
Each  thus  has  a  different  function. 

Structure:  These  words  are  built  up  by  the  organization 
of  letters  which  unfortunately  do  not  follow  any  logical 
order.  Their  structure  has  been  determined  by  con- 
vention, and  has  to  be  accepted  as  it  is.  The  structure 
consists  in  each  case  of  the  letters  as  arranged  by 
convention. 

believe  receive  reprieve 

grieve  achieve  sieve 

conceive  retrieve  sleigh 

feign  deceive  neigh 

Function:   To  provide  an  exact  form  by  which  to  sym- 
bolize the  idea  for  which  each  word  stands. 
Structure:   The  structure  of  the  words  follows  a  definite 
rule  (with  exceptions)  with  regard  to  the  order  of  the 
i  and  the  e.    That  is  to  say,  the  order  of  the  i  and  the  e 


98  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

is  determined  by  the  following  rule :  "i  before  e,  except 
after  c,  or  when  pronounced  like  a,  as  in  neighbor,  and 
weigh." 

SECTION  2.     IN  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  NEW  SUBJECT-MATTER  THE 

FUNCTION   Is   FIRST  DETERMINED  AND  THE  STRUCTURE 

Is  BUILT  UP  TO  PERFORM  THE  FUNCTION 

English  History. — It  is,  of  course,  clear  that  the 
method  of  organizing  units  of  subject-matter  de  novo  should 
be  the  same  as  those  which  have  been  found  in  subject- 
matter  already  effectively  organized,  and  illustrations  of 
how  this  may  be  applied  to  history  and  theme-writing  will 
be  sufficient.  In  the  first  place,  the  function  of  the  whole 
course  is  decided  upon.  Let  us  suppose  that  in  English 
history  we  wish  to  make  the  subject-matter  serve  the  func- 
tion, inadequate  though  it  be,  of  showing  the  rise*  in  govern- 
mental power  of  the  common  people  of  England.  When 
we  proceed  to  organize  our  subject-matter  we  have  a  well- 
defined  line  to  which  to  hew.  There  is  a  vast  array  or 
.accumulation  of  facts  which  are  of  interest,  some  for  one 
purpose,  some  for  another.  But  we  may  choose  only  those 
events  which  had  an  influence  upon  the  rise  of  the  common 
people  in  governmental  power.  We  can,  for  instance,  deter- 
mine to  what  extent  and  from  what  standpoint  to  study  the 
wars  of  England.  For  example,  we  would  be  concerned 
very  little  with  the  battles  of  the  Hundred  Years  War,  but 
would  lay  great  stress  upon  the  effects  of  the  war  in  modify- 
ing the  political  power  of  the  common  people.  We  would 
profitably  omit  all  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  except  the  decisive 
battles,  and  would  retain  those  only  as  fitting  centers  around 
which  to  collect  the  political  influences  of  the  wars. 

We  can  also  determine  the  characters  in  English  history 
upon  which  to  lay  most  stress.  The  character  of  Simon  de 


FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE  99 

Montfort  might  receive  more  attention  than  that  of  Piers 
Gaveston.  We  are  able,  too,  to  determine  the  elements  of 
the  characters  of  the  different  sovereigns  upon  which  to  lay 
stress;  for  instance,  those  characteristics  of  King  John 
which  most  angered  his  people  would  be  most  important, 
those  characteristics  of  Richard  I  which  enabled  his  people 
to  gain  more  power  would  be  significant  ones,  and  those 
characteristics  of  Charles  I  which  made  the  people  restive 
under  his  authority  should  be  selected.  We  see  why  cer- 
tain periods  should  be  emphasized  and  other  periods  treated 
briefly.  For  example,  the  period  from  449  to  900  A.  D.,  the 
reigns  of  Henry  I,  of  Henry  II,  and  of  John,  the  Stuart 
period,  and  the  period  immediately  preceding  and  succeed- 
ing 1832,  should  be  treated  fully  in  their  political  aspects. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Yorkist  and  the  Tudor  periods 
should  receive  relatively  less  attention. 

The  teacher  then  knows,  and  the  children  know,  that 
their  reason  for  studying  the  tenth  lesson,  or  the  twenty- 
fifth  lesson,  or  any  lesson,  is  to  see  how  the  growth  in 
political  power  of  the  common  people  was  affected  by  the 
events  portrayed  in  that  particular  unit.  And  the  pupils 
at  the  end  of  their  study  of  English  history  should  have 
their  subject-matter  organized  in  such  a  way  that  they  can 
trace  the  development  of  this  power  from  449  A.  D.  to  the 
present  time,  and  state  the  conditions  which  have  influenced 
the  development,  step  by  step. 

Two  things  may  be  said  in  relation  to  the  foregoing 
treatment  of  English  history,  (i)  It  is  not  necessary  for 
us  to  assume  that  this  is  the  best  function  that  English 
history  can  serve.  The  points  are  these :  the  function  must 
be '  determined,  whatever  it  may  be ;  and  the  teacher  and 
pupils  should  have  that  objective  point  before  them  con- 
tinually. (2)  In  so  far  as  there  are  other  facts  in  English 


100  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

history  which  may  be  of  value  but  which  have  yet  had  no 
appreciable  effect  upon  the  determined  function,  they  may 
be  noted,  but  they  should  be  recognized  as  being  incidental 
and  relatively  isolated  from  the  trunk  line  of  study. 

Theme-Writing. — In  writing  a  paper  upon  any  topic 
the  first  step  is  to  determine  the  problem  which  the  paper 
intends  to  solve,  or,  stating  it  in  terms  of  subject-matter, 
the  function  of  the  subject-matter  which  is  about  to  be 
organized.  Then  the  pupil  has  to  think  out  the  main  argu- 
ments or  steps  that  he  will  use  in  solving  this  problem,  and 
these  will  form  the  skeleton  of  the  paper.  Then  each  of 
these  main  arguments  must  be  studied  in  detail  to  get 
facts  to  support  it.  Thus  a  more  detailed  outline  for  the 
paper  is  obtained  and  the  paper  will  be  completed  by  con- 
necting the  arguments  and  massing  the  details  in  appropriate 
language.  Here,  again,  the  function  is  of  supreme  value. 
It  gives  the  standpoint  from  which  to  select  subject-matter, 
and  indicates  the  standard  by  which  to  judge  the  logical 
quality  of  the  paper;  for  the  function  will  check  up  every 
point,  even  to  the  minor  ones,  since  anything  irrelevant  to 
it  must  be  excluded,  and  everything  that  is  relevant  and 
reasonably  within  the  experience  of  the  pupil  is  expected 
to  be  inserted. 

SECTION    3.      THE    SAME    GENERAL    SUBJECT-MATTER    MAY    HAVE 

DIFFERENT  FUNCTIONS  WITH   CORRESPONDINGLY 

DIFFERENT  ORGANIZATIONS 

Arithmetic. — The  principle  which  is  stated  at  the  head 
of  this  section  may  be  illustrated  as  follows :  If  we  take 
the  Fodder  Tables  and  the  Tables  of  Nutriment  for  a  Day's 
Feeding  and  select  a  few  facts,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  show 
how  these  may  have  different  organizations  when  fulfilling 
different  functions. 


FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE  IQI 

Dry  Pro-  Carbohy- 

Fodder.                                    Pounds.  Matter.  tein.  drates,  etc. 

Corn    stover    10  5.95  .17  3.24 

Clover  hay    10  8.5  .71  4.2 

Corn   meal   1  .85  .063  .71 

Cottonseed    meal    1  .9  .45  .4 

Wheat  bran    6  5.1  .38  4.3 

These  figures  refer  to  the  constituent  food  products 
selected.  For  instance,  10  Ibs.  of  clover  hay  contains  8.5 
Ibs.  of  dry  matter  and  in  the  dry  matter  is  found  .71  Ib.  of 
protein  and  4.2  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates,  etc. 

It  is  known,  further,  that  (a)  a  milch  cow  weighing  1,000 
Ibs.  and  producing  22  Ibs.  of  milk  per  day  requires  29  Ibs. 
of  dry  matter,  including  2.5  Ibs.  of  protein  and  13  Ibs.  of 
carbohydrates  per  day,  and  (b)  beef  cattle  from  18  to  24 
months  old,  weighing  950  Ibs.,  require  per  day  22.8  Ibs.  of 
dry  matter,  including  1.71  Ibs.  of  protein  and  11.4  Ibs. 
of  carbohydrates. 

These  seven  facts  may  be  organized  differently,  some 
being  used  in  one  proportion  and  some  in  another,  some 
being  omitted  and  others  utilized.  For  instance,  if  we  wish 
to  make  a  balanced  ration  for  each  of  the  kinds  of  cattle 
mentioned,  we  may  have  different  organizations,  in  detail 
as  follows:  Function:  To  make  a  ration  for  the  milch 
cow  referred  to  above. 

Structure: 

Dry  Pro-  Carbohy- 

Fodder.                                  Pounds.  Matter.  tein.  drates,  etc 

Clover  hay    10                     8.5  .71  4.2 

Corn    stover    10                     5.95  .17  3.24 

Corn   meal   4                     3.4  .26  2.86 

Wheat   bran    5                     4.4  .6  2.40 

Cottonseed    meal    2                     1.8  .9  .8 

Total    .  31  24.05  2.64  13.5 

Standard    29  2.5  13 

This  provides  a  satisfactory  balance  of  ration  (slightly 
light  in  bulk).  It  is,  therefore,  an  organization  that  fulfills 
its  function. 

For  the  second  kind  of  cattle  another  organization  of  the 
fodder  constituents  is  possible,  as  follows; 


102  METHODS  OF  TEACHI1\G 

Function:   To  make  a  ration  for  the  beef  cattle  referred 
to  above. 
Structure: 

Dry  Pro-  Carbohy- 

Fodder.                                   Pounds.            Matter.  tein.  drates,  etc. 

Corn  meal 8                    6.8  .48  ,               5.7 

Cottonseed  meal 1                        .9  .45  .4 

Clover  hay    10                     8.5  .71  •             4.2 

Corn    stover    5                     2.97  .08  1.62 


Total    24  19.17  1.72  11.92 

Standard    22.8  1.71  11.4 

This  slightly  different  organization  is  made  by  the  selec- 
tion of  another  function  to  be  fulfilled. 

Geography. — Suppose  we  take  the  following  problem : 
What  are  the  effects  of  the  motions  of  the  earth  relative  to 
the  sun?  In  a  general  way,  the  subject-matter  organized 
to  answer  this  question  may  be  considered  to  be  composed 
of  three  facts:  (i)  the  earth  revolves  around  the  sun  in 
the  plane  of  its  orbit,  once  a  year;  (2)  it  revolves  on  its 
own  axis  once  a  day;  (3)  the  axis  of  the  earth  is  inclined 
2$l/2 °.  from  the  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit. 

Now,  this  subject-matter  may  be  made  to  serve  two  pur- 
poses, among  others. 

(i)  Function:  To  explain  the  cause  of  the  seasons. 

Structure:  If  we  take  any  point  upon  the  earth's 
surface,  it  is  evident  that  in  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  around  the  sun  there  will  be  one  time  in 
the  year  when  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  more  nearly 
perpendicular  to  that  point  than  at  any  other  time. 
The  sun's  rays  are  most  effective  when  they  are 
perpendicular,  and  this  gives  rise  to  summer.  At 
another  time  of  the  year,  when  the  earth  is  at  the 
other  extreme  of  the  orbit,  the  rays  fall  most 
obliquely  on  that  same  point.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  heat  rays  are  less  effective,  and 
this  gives  rise  to  winter.  There  are  two  periods 


FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE  103 

during  which  the  sun's  rays  are  inclined  at  angles 
half  way  between  these  two  extremes.  The  one  of 
these  that  follows  summer  is  fall,  which  is  warmer 
than  winter  and  colder  than  summer,  and  the  other 
is  spring,  which  is  also  warmer  than  winter  and 
colder  than  summer. 
(2)  Function:  To  explain  the  fact  that  the  days  are 

longer  in  summer  than  in  winter. 
Structure:  Consider  any  point  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. In  summer  the  sun's  rays  reach  beyond 
the  north  pole,  and  will  cover  more  than  half  the 
northern  hemisphere.  As  the  point  revolves 
around  the  earth's  axis,  it  will  be  in  the  sunlight 
more  than  one-half  the  time.  Hence  the  days  will 
be  longer  than  the  nights. 

In  these  examples  the  three  facts  that  were  stated  at  the 
beginning,  when  amplified  and  illustrated  sufficiently,  as  in 
text-books  on  geography,  usually  contain  the  facts  stated 
in  the  solution  of  the  two  problems.  The  point  to  be 
emphasized  is  that  we  may,  if  we  so  desire,  take  the  organi- 
zation of  subject-matter  made  to  fulfill  an  encyclopedic 
purpose  and  approach  it  from  different  standpoints,  as  in 
the  instances  just  given.  And  a  different  organization  of 
the  original  subject-matter  will  result  as  each  of  these  dif- 
ferent problems  is  successively  in  mind.  In  such  cases  we 
get  a  new  organization  by  laying  emphasis  upon  certain  of 
the  facts  and  subordinating  the  other  facts  found  within  the 
larger  organization. 

Literature. — That  a  selection  in  literature  may  have 
different  functions  is  very  well  exemplified  by  the  well- 
known  poem,  Excelsior.  From  one  standpoint,  the  function 
may  be  to  illustrate  the  persistence  of  an  ideal;  from  an- 
other standpoint,  and  this  the  standpoint  of  young  children, 


104 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


it  may  be  that  of  portraying  the  adventures  of  a  remarkable 

youth.     Upon  the  first  basis  we  are  fortunate  in  having 

Longfellow's1  own  statement  of  the  purpose  of  the  poem. 

(The  author's  statement  is  indicated  by  quotation  marks.) 

(i)  Function:    "I   have  had   the  pleasure  of   receiving 

.  your  note  in  regard  to  the  poem,  Excelsior,  and 

very  willingly  give  you  my  intention  in  writing  it. 

This  was  no  more  than  to  display,  in  a  series  of 

pictures,  the  life  of  a  man  of  genius,  resisting  all 

temptations,  laying  aside  all  fears,  heedless  of  all 

warnings,  and  pressing  right  on  to  accomplish  his 

purpose. 

Structure:  "His  motto  was  'excelsior' — and  'higher.' 
He  passes  through  the  Alpine  village — through  the 
rough,  cold  paths  of  the  world — where  the  peas- 
ants cannot  understand  him  and  where  his  watch- 
word is  an  'unknown  tongue.'  He  disregards  the 
happiness  of  domestic  peace  and  sees  the  glaciers — 
his  fate — before  him.  He  disregards  the  warnings 
of  the  old  man's  wisdom  and  the  fascinations  of 
woman's  love.  He  answers  to  all,  'Higher  yet.' 
The  monks  of  St.  Bernard  are  the  representations 
of  religious  forms  and  ceremonies,  and  with  their 
oft-repeated  prayer  mingles  the  sound  of  his  voice, 
telling  them  there  is  something  higher  than  forms 
and  ceremonies.  Filled  with  these  aspirations,  he 
perishes,  without  having  reached  the  perfection  he 
longed  for;  and  the  voice  heard  in  the  air  is  the 
promise  of  immortality  and  progress  ever  upward." 
The  analysis  from  the  second  standpoint  might  proceed 
somewhat  as  follows: 

1  Longfellow's  Poetical  Works,  Vol.  i,  pp.  79  and  80,  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  1892  edition. 


FUNCTION  AND  STRUCTURE  105 

(2)'  Function:    To  describe  the  adventures  of  a  lonely, 

peculiar  youth  in  climbing  an  Alpine  mountain. 
Structure:    i.  Stanzas  I  and  2  show  his  loneliness 
by  the  terms  'strange  device'  and  'unknown  tongue/ 
and   his  peculiarity   is   shown  by  his   carrying  a 
banner,  his  sad  brow,  and  his  flashing  eyes. 
2.     Stanzas  3  to  9  tell  of  his  adventures. 

(a)  Stanza  3 — he  passes  homes,  and  his  loneliness 
and  peculiarity  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  he 
sees  the  comforts  of  homes,  but,  even  though 
he   is   so   lonely   that   he   groans,    he   passes 
them  by. 

(b)  Stanza  4 — he  meets  an  old  man,  and  again  his 
peculiarity  is  shown  in  his  paying  no  attention 
to  the  dangers  ahead. 

(c)  Stanza  5 — he  meets  a  maiden ;  again  his  lone- 
liness is  shown  by  the  tears  that  come  to  his 
eyes,  and  his  peculiarity  by  his  still  pressing 

•  on,  though  with  a  sigh. 

(d)  Stanza.  6 — late  at  night  he  meets  a  peasant, 
who  warns  him  of  other  dangers.    His  pecu- 
liarity is  shown  again  in  his  still  pressing  on. 

(e)  Stanza  7 — shows  him  in  the  morning,  away 
up  the  mountain-side ;   his  loneliness  is  shown 
again  by  the  expression,  'the  startled  air.' 

(f)  Stanza  8 — depicts  him  as  finally  dying,  alone, 
frozen;    and  his  peculiarity  is  further  shown 
by  his  still  grasping  the  banner  in  his  hand 
of  ice. 

(g)  Stanza  9 — again  shows  the  strangeness  of  the 
youth,  in  that,  as  he  lay  there,  a  strange  event 
occurs,  "that  from  the  sky  a  voice  fell  like  a 
falling  star,  Excelsior." 


106  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  many  children  who  read  the 
poem,  Excelsior,  appreciate  only  this  latter  rather  meager 
function.  But  waiving  the  question  of  the  advisability  of 
teaching  the  poem  to  children  who  get  nothing  more  than 
this  out  of  it,  it  furnishes  a  good  illustration  of  how  litera- 
ture may  serve  some  other  function  than  that  which  the 
author  .primarily  intended.1  Oftentimes  in  the  exposition  of 
his  deeper  meaning  he  uses  illustrations  and  allegory,  which 
to  the  discerning  mind  are  seen  to  be  merely  the  vehicles  of ' 
his  meaning,  but  which  to  one  not  so  discerning  become 
the  whole  content  of  the  idea.  An  excellent  example  of 
this  allegorical  presentation  of  meaning  is  furnished  by 
Bunyan  in  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

1  See  Chapter  HI. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  COITRSE  OF  STUDY 

SECTION  i.    FACTORS  IN  THE  SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 

The  course  of  study  is  usually  discussed  in  educational 
administration  rather  than  in  methods  of  teaching,  because 
the  latter  in  the  last  few  years,  during  which  the  fields  of 
educational  theory  have  been  in  a  process  of  differentiation, 
has  been  investigating  methods  of  presentation  of  subject- 
matter,  to  the  partial  neglect  of  the  organization  of  subject- 
matter.  But  subject-matter  is  an  essential  factor  in  the 
teaching  process  and  right  methods  are  conditioned  by  right 
subject-matter,  hence,  it  is  evident  that  the  selection  and 
organization  of  subject-matter  may  be  appropriately  dis- 
cussed in  methods  of  teaching.  Consequently,  a  chapter 
on  the  high  school  course  of  study  is  introduced  here  to 
round  out  our  discussion  of  subject-matter. 

The  theory  of  organizing  a  high  school  course  of  study  is 
extremely  easy  of  statement,  although  the  working  of  the 
theory  over  into  practice  is  difficult,  since  we  have  1ittle 
scientifically  accurate  data  about  pupils  of  Hgh  school  age. 
This  lack  of  accurate  data  causes  a  good  deal  of  mere  con- 
jecture and  of  reliance  upon  individual  opinion  in  the  deter- 
mination of  a  course  of  study.  Consequently,  the  course  of 
study  suggested  in  this  chapter  must  be  considered  to  be 
purely  tentative,  subject  to  modification  at  the  hands  of 
those  whose  opinions  differ  from  those  of  the  writer. 

But  while  the  course  of  study  is  subject  to  opinion,  the 

107 


108  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

general  method  of  selection  is  pretty  well  substantiated  by 
writers  upon  education  and  its  allied  subjects. 

The  Pupil  as  a  Factor  in  Selection. — The  first  factor 
that  enters  into  the  selection  of  subject-matter  for  any  course 
of  study,  elementary  or  high  school,  is  the  needs  of  the 
pupils.  For,  since  teaching,  endeavors  to  give  the  pupil  con- 
trol of  his  values  and  the  appreciation  of  values  not  yet  his 
own,  it  is  necessary  that  the  course  of  study  be  fitted  to  his 
system  and  scheme  of  values  in  a  rather  intimate  way.  The 
subject-matter  the  race  has  worked  out  cannot  fall  like  an 
avalanche  upon  him.  It  has  to  be  adjusted  to  his  appetite 
in  order  that  it  become  assimilated. 

The  high  school  pupil  has  four  characteristics  that  are 
relevant  to  our  problem.  In  the  first  place,  he  has  many 
active  needs  and  interests,  as  any  person  can  see  without 
difficulty  who  watches  high  school  boys  and  girls  and  be- 
comes intimately  acquainted  with  them.  They  have  prob- 
lems of  their  own,  intellectual,  social,  and  moral.  Adoles- 
cence is  the  peculiar  time  of  religious  conversion.  All  these 
ought  to  be  understood,  but  unfortunately  they  have  not 
been  extensively  studied  and  are  not  well  known.  Practi- 
cally all  the  work  that  has  been  published  has  been  clone 
by  Hall  and  his  pupils,  for  a  resume  of  which  the  reader  is 
directed  to  Hall's  Adolescence. 

In  the  second  place,  high  school  students  are  suggestible 
and  can  frequently  be  made  to  feel  the  need  of  certain 
kinds  of  subject-matter  in  which  they  have  not  up  to  that 
time  been  actually  interested.  This  can  be  done  within 
certain  limits.  The  practical  high  school  teacher  can  recall 
many  instances  in  which  a  worthy  interest  in  new  subjects 
and  materials  has  been  stimulated ;  and  can  recall  many 
instances  in  which  it  seemed  impossible  to  secure  interest  on 


HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY  109 

the  part  of  some  of  the  pupils  in  certain  subjects.  The 
teacher  who  recalls  instances  of  failure  usually  blames  him- 
self, but,  while  the  fault  may  be  justly  laid  upon  the  teach- 
er's methods,  it  is  only  partly  his.  Either  or  both  of  two 
other  factors  may  cause  failure ;  viz.,  limitations  to  the 
range  of  interests  of  the  pupils,  and  of  available  subject- 
matter.  They  may  not  have  had  the  capacity  for  interest 
in  the  subject  at  that  particular  time.  Possibly  or  prob- 
ably it  would  come  later,  but  it  is  beyond  calling  range  at 
this  stage  of  the  pupil's  development. 

In  the  third  place,  because  the  adolescent  has  passed  the 
limits  of  physical  and  psychological  childhood  upon  the 
acquisition  of  sexual  maturity,  he  has  acquired  capacity 
for  understanding  and  appreciating  most  of  the  problems 
and  attitudes  of  adult  experience.  Hence,  in  a  rudimen- 
tary way  he  is  capable  of  becoming  interested  in  all  the 
more  fundamental  aspects  of  adult  life.  He  can  appreciate 
now  quite  vividly,  though  not  with  clear  intelligence,  the 
social,  political,  economic,  religious,  and  moral  questions  of 
society.  Being  not  yet  by  any  means  mature,  he  does  not 
have  the  adult's  soberness  and  persistence,  but  he  feels  the 
problems  in  his  vague  and  spasmodic  way,  and  he  is  pre- 
pared to  take  on  the  study  of  subjects  in  which  in  pre- 
adolescent  days  he  had  no  interest  and  for  which  he  could 
be  made  to  feel  none. 

In  the  fourth  place,  this  lack  of  maturity,  together  with 
certain  other  factors,  causes  him  to  study  popular  rather 
than  scientific  facts.  Popular  science  is  more  attractive 
than  systematic  science.  He  is  interested  chiefly  in  such 
physics  as  will  suffice  to  explain  why  objects  work  as  they 
do.  The  systematic  study  of  the  theory  of  electricity  he 
is  not  yet  prepared  for.  He  picks  up  his  sciences  in  scraps, 


1 10  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  scraps  being  those  facts  which  explain  the  workings  of 
the  common  objects  that  surround  him.1 

The  average  adolescent,  then,  may  be  assumed  to  be  most 
interested  in  those  things  which  touch  his  daily  life,  now 
widened  to  take  in  the  fundamental  problems  and  processes 
of  the  popular — not  scientific — society  in  which  he  lives. 
He  is  not  a  "student,"  nor  a  "scientist" ;  he  is  a  "practical 
man,"  with  his  practical  interests  wider  than  they  will  prob- 
ably ever  be  again,  after  the  narrowing  effects  of  a  selected 
occupation  have  had  a  chance  to  be  felt. 

Racial  Subject-Matter. — The  second  factor  entering 
into  the  organization  of  a  course  of  study  is  racial  subject- 
matter — the  fields  of  knowledge  that  have  been  worked  out 
in  systematic  form  by  the  race.  Each  of  these  subjects  has 
an  intrinsic  function;  and  certain  indirect  results  follow 
from  their  study.  They  are  at  the  command  of  the  teacher 
who  can  utilize  them  in  helping  the  pupil  to  control  his 
values  and  to  appreciate  new  ones.  Hence,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  teacher  know  the  intrinsic  functions  of  each  sub- 
ject, so  that  the  pupil  may  be  brought  into  contact  with 
each,  or  divisions  of  each,  at  propitious  times  when  the 
appropriate  need  is  present  or  is  standing  just  outside  the 
door,  waiting  to  be  invited  in.  The  determination  of  these 
interests  and  attitudes  of  the  adolescent,  unlike  the  deter- 
mination of  the  needs,  is  capable  of  exact  definition,  as 
illustrated  in  the  three  preceding  chapters.  And  such  defini- 
tion is  necessary  as  a  step  in  the  organization  of  a  high 
school  course  of  study. 

SECTION  2.    DETAILS  OF  SELECTION 

Necessity  for  Selection. — The  two  foregoing  factors 
determine  the  selection  of  subjects  and  their  organization 

1  Hall's  Adolescence,  Vol.  2,  Chap.  12. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY  m 

into  a  course  of  study.  Some  selection  is  necessary:  not 
all  subject-matter  and  not  all  of  any  subject  should  be 
taught  in  the  high  school.  This  is  true  for  four  reasons. 

First,  some  of  the  subjects  are  taught  in  the  grades  and 
have  no  place  in  the  high  school.  Among  such  subjects  are 
writing  and  spelling.  In  so  far  as  they  have  a  place  in 
the  high  school,  it  is  because  habits  not  yet  fixed  need  to  be 
trained. 

Second,  there  are  legal  objections  to  some  subjects  in 
certain  countries,  such  as  the  teaching  of  religion  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  United  States^ 

Third,  there  are  so  many  subjects  that  may  be  taught, 
that  all  cannot  be  handled  in  a  four-year  course  in  which 
the  student  may  at  most  study  only  from  thirty-two  to 
forty  of  these  for  a  half-year  each. 

Fourth,  as  pointed  out  above,  there  are  limitations  to  the 
active  or  potential  needs  of  the  adolescent.  But  this,  how- 
ever, is  not  serious  if  attention  is  paid  to  fundamental 
subjects.  A  specialized  subject,  such  as  a  foreign  language, 
or  any  other  subject  taught  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
specialist,  may  not  evoke  interest,  but  a  fundamental,  such 
as  metaphysics,  even,  taught  from  the  popular  standpoint, 
and  its  facts  selected  from  a  non-technical  point  of  view,  is 
of  surpassing  interest  to  that  most  inveterate  of  metaphysi- 
cians, the  adolescent. 

Starting  Points  in  Selecting. — The  selection  may  begin 
from  either  of  two  directions.  In  the  first  place,  the  teacher 
may  look  over  the  whole  field  of  racial  experience,  may 
view  the  whole  "field  of  knowledge,"  and  select  from  each 
of  its  great  divisions  subjects  which  are  typical  of  those 
divisions.  He  will  secure  a  list  in  which  there  will  be  a 
physical  science,  a  biological  science,  some  division  of  his- 
tory, some  foreign  language,  some  mathematical  subject, 


112  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

etc.  In  his  selection  from  among  the  representatives  of 
these  fields  he  will,  of  course,  be  guided  by  the  ability  of 
the  pupil  to  grasp  them,  and  this  extent,  at  least,  will 
combine  the  two  factors,  racial  subject-matter  and  the  pupil. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  such  a  method  of  selection 
are,  first,  that  it  trains  the  pupils  in  the  methods  of  investi- 
gation utilized  in  the  great  departments  of  knowledge, 
methods  so  valuable  that  their  possession  by  the  race 
engenders  justifiable  pride.  Second,  by  this  acquaintance 
with  the  great  fields  of  knowledge,  the  pupil  frequently 
discovers  new  interests  of  which  he  had  been  hitherto  un- 
conscious, interests  so  intense  and  persistent  that  his  future 
occupation  is  sometimes  determined  by  them.  Third, 
whether  it  has  such  a  distinct  effect  upon  his  life  or  not, 
this  introduction  to  all  fields  of  knowledge  makes  the  pupil 
an  all-rounded  individual  both  in  his  information  and  his 
interests,  and  counteracts  perpetually  the  narrowing  in- 
fluence of  a  later  specialized  life  occupation. 

However,  in  selecting  subject-matter  we  may  start  in 
from  the  other  end  and  begin  with  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 
The  initial  question  is  asked,  What  are  the  needs  which 
high  school  pupils  have  and  of  which  they  may  bo  made 
conscious?  From  among  these  the  fundamental  types  are 
selected.  Then  the  subjects  are  selected  whose  intrinsic 
functions  are  able  to  satisfy  these  needs. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  selection 
are  as  follows :  First,  a  strong  motive  is  given  to  all  work, 
since  pupils,  according  to  the  assumption  of  the  point  of 
view,  feel  a  deep  interest  in  these  fundamental  problems 
and  their  solution.  Second,  not  only  is  there  a  strong  motive 
for  the  study  of  the  subject,  but  the  principles  studied  are 
understood  better,  since  they  deal  with  problems  to  which 
the  students  have  already  given  some  thought.  Perhaps, 


HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY  113 

the  thinking  has  not  been  either  accurate  or  definite,  but 
enough  has  been  given  to  produce  a  familiar  "feeling"  in 
connection  with  the  situation.  Third,  since  the  subjects 
studied  will  thus  be  connected  with  fundamental  needs,  and 
since  fundamental  needs  are  in  the  main  closely  related  to 
fundamental  types  of  conduct,  the  study  of  the  subjects 
will  directly  influence  practical  conduct. 

The  Net  Result. — The  question  arises,  Do  we  not  come 
out  at  the  same  place  by  starting  at  either  end  ?  By  starting 
with  the  great  types  of  subject-matter  and  selecting  the 
most  important,  may  we  not  define  importance  in  terms  of 
fundamental  needs,  saying  that  the  most  important  are  those 
which  satisfy  the  most  fundamental  needs?  And  is  that 
not  exactly  what  we  do  when  we  select  the  fundamental 
needs  first  and  select  the  appropriate  subject-matter  after- 
wards? 

The  question,  then,  is  whether  relative  importance  among 
the  fields  of  knowledge  is  determined  by  the  same  standards 
as  is  the  relative  importance  among  needs  and  interests. 

In  the  world  of  knowledge,  the  importance  of  a  field  is 
determined  in  actual  practice,  partly  by  the  importance  of 
the  problem,  but  much  more  by  the  progress  made  in  the 
solution  of  the  problem.  Among  many  important  fields, 
that  one  has  relatively  greater  temporary  importance  in 
which  there  has  recently  been  "something  doing."  Even 
in  universities  which  are  not  supported  by  the  state,  and 
thus  are  not  subject  to  legal  restrictions,  science  is  com- 
monly considered  by  the  average  student  or  instructor  to 
be  more  important- than  religion.  To  say,  however,  that 
science  satisfies  a  more  important  need  than  does  religion, 
would  not  be  acknowledged  by  as  great  a  preponderance  of 
opinion.  Importance  is  not  a  scientific  matter.  It  is  a 
matter  of  belief  and  feeling  mixed  with  arguments.  Hence, 


114  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in  answer  to  the  question,  Entering  from  either  end,  do  we 
come  out  at  the  same  place  ?  we  may  say,  "Not  necessarily.1' 

And  as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  do  not,  in  practice.  Among 
the  subjects  which  are  required  in  a  high  school  course  of 
study  are  foreign  language,  algebra,  and  geometry.  They 
are  justified  as  being  subjects  about  which  everybody  should 
know,  representatives  of  two  of  the  great  fields  of  human 
thought.  But  they  are  in  the  course  of  study  because  of 
the  innate  conservative  strain  in  the  high  school  system — 
it  is  absurd  to  claim  that  they  solve  such  fundamental  needs 
that  they  should  be  required  of  everyone. 

Required  Subjects  and  Electives. — In  this  chapter,  then, 
it  is  proposed  that  we  enter  from  the  pupil's  side  and  utilize 
the  subject-matter  as  required  in  connection  with  his  active 
needs  and  desirable  potential  interests. 

There  are  in  a  course  of  study  two  classes  of  subjects, — 
required  and  elective.  These  vary,  but  in  the  main  they 
include,  in  practice,  a  minimum  of  three  units  of  English, 
one  each  of  algebra  and  geometry,  and  two  of  a  foreign 
language. 

The  principles  upon  which  required  and  elective  subjects 
may  be  determined  are  these :  Those  subjects  should  be 
required  which  handle  problems  and  needs  which  every 
person,  irrespective  of  occupation  or  individual  bias,  will 
have  to  solve  and  satisfy;  those  should  be  elective  which 
appeal  to  the  interests  of  individuals,  because  of  tempera- 
ment or  intended  occupation. 

In  the  remainder  of  the  chapter  a  few  subjects  will  be 
suggested  which  seem  to  be  of  prime  importance.  The 
list  is  not  necessarily  complete,  and  the  amount  of  time  to 
be  given  to  each  is  not  determined. 

It  has  not  been  worked  out  in  detail,  because,  when  com- 
pleted, there  is  of  necessity  so  much  of  opinion  in  the  whole 


HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY  115 

proposition  that  a  scientifically  accurate  list  cannot  be  made. 
This  list  is  given  rather  as  an  illustration  of  how  the  prin- 
ciples might  be  applied  than  as  one  whose  details  are  beyond 
question. 

SECTION  3.    TENTATIVE  LIST  OF  REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 

The  principle  of  selection  for  the  list  of  required  subjects 
is  this:  Those  subjects  which  deal  with  fundamental  prob- 
lems and  needs  with  which  each  individual,  irrespective  of 
personal  bias  or  occupation,  has  more  or  less  to  do.  Pick 
out  those  subjects  which  a  man,  as  a  social  being  sur- 
rounded by  others,  will  be  helped  by,  and  make  them 
required.  Let  each  pupil  elect  subjects  that  will  fit  him 
for  business,  for  college,  or  for  his  own  peculiar  pleasure. 
Upon  such  a  basis  the  following  list  of  required  subjects  is 
presented : 

1.  English    Composition  —  unless    well    taught    in    the 

grades. 

2.  Politics    and    Government;    for    all    pupils    will    be 

expected  to  vote,  when  the  franchise  is  extended  to 
women,  they  can  with  difficulty  get  the  unbiased 
facts  from  the  newspapers,  which  for  the  most 
part  are  partisan. 

3.  Sociology — since   preventive   philanthropy,   the   rela- 

tions of  capital  and  labor,  prevention  of  crime, 
etc.,  are  among  our  greatest  modern  problems. 

4.  Art — including  enough  of  architecture  to  build  an 

unobjectionable  house,  enough  of  color  apprecia- 
tion to  decorate  it  fittingly  inside  and  out,  enough 
of  landscape  gardening  to  beautify  the  grounds, 
literature  sufficient  to  appreciate  the  deepest  emo- 
tions expressed  in  fitting  terms,  and  of  music  to 
secure  relaxation  and  enjoyment. 


Il6  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

5.  Application  of  biology,  chemistry,  and  physics  to  the 

problems  of  adulteration  of  foods,  common  animals 
and  plants,  electric  bells,  and  other  practical 
matters. 

6.  Domestic  science  and  art  for  women  whether  they 

will  have  to  do  their  own  housework  or  not, 
enough  knowledge  of  adulteration  and  quality  of 
textiles  to  enable  them  to  avoid  judging  quality  by 
price,  enough  knowledge  of  sewing  and  millinery  to 
plan  and  make  their  own  clothes,  if  necessary,  etc. 

7.  Physiology  for  young  men  and  for  young  women,  in 

which  will  be  taken  up  the  problems  of  sex-hygiene, 
household  sanitation,  infection,  contagion,  etc., 
taught  in  segregated  classes. 

8  Economics  sufficient  for  business  purposes,  including 
the  fundamental  theories  of  money,  credit  and 
banking,  distribution  and  consumption,  taxation 
and  transportation. 

9.  American  history  for  American  schools,  used  as  part 
of  other  subjects  to  give  them  background  and 
systematically  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  evolution 
of  our  great  American  problems. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  does  not  include  either  algebra, 
geometry  or  a  foreign  language.  The  reason  for  the  omis- 
sion is  that  they  do  not  cater  to  any  fundamental  needs.  It 
does  not  include  ethics  because  the  writer  believes  that  the 
values  in  that  field  can  best  be  taught  incidentally. 

Certain  objectors  will  say  that  a  little  sociology  or 
economics  in  the  high  school  is  dangerous  because  these  are 
really  subjects  for  adults.  But  in  answer,  first,  almost  every 
specialist  makes  the  same  claim  about  his  own  subject  in 
the  high  school,  and  it  is  true  if  one  wishes  to  teach  a 
system  ot  principles. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY  117 

But  it  is  pot  true  if  it  is  presented  bit  by  bit  in  explana- 
tion of  practical  and  familiar  problems.  Second,  the  pupils 
have  to  meet  these  problems  and  meet  them  squarely.  Only 
a  small  proportion  go  to  college,  and  if  they  do  not  get  a 
knowledge  of  them  in  the  high  school  they  must  pick  it  up 
for  themselves.  A  half  loaf  is  better  than  none. 

REFERENCES   FOR   CLASS   READING 

Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  2,  pp.  153-159- 

De  Garmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  i,  pp.  27-52. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  instances  of  where  pupils  with  a  distaste  for 
algebra,  Latin,  literature,  or  physics  finally  become  intensely 
interested  in  it. 

2.  Can  the  average  pupil  be  made  interested  in  any 
subject  under  a  good  teacher? 

3.  If  a  pupil  can  be  made  interested  in  a  subject,  is 
that  sufficient  reason  for  its  being  in  the  course  of  study? 
Why? 

4.  What  do  you  think  of  the  statement  that  the  adoles- 
cent is  an  inveterate  metaphysician? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  between  science  taught  as 
popular  and  as  a  systematic  science? 

6.  Can  laboratory  work  be  done  if  the  science  is  taught 
popularly? 

7.  Can  magazine  articles  be  used  in  a  subject  taught 
from  this  point  of  view,  without  cheapening  the  course? 

8.  What  are  the  objections  to  the  plan  of  required  sub- 
jects as  outlined  here? 

9.  Should  a  vocational  subject  be  required?    Why? 
10.     What  difficulties  would  arise  from  teaching  politics 

and  government  in  the  high  school?     They  are  taught  in 


Hg  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

colleges  as  political  science  and  no  serious  objection  is  made. 
Is  the  case  different  in  the  high  school  ? 

ii.  Should  the  university  prescribe  what  subjects  will  be 
accepted  for  entrance,  or  should  it  accept  anything  that  is 
well  taught  in  the  high  school? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   TEACHING   OF    SUBJECT-MATTER 

SECTION   i.     THE  PROBLEM  OF  TEACHING 

We  teach  when  we  assist  the  learner  to  get  control  of 
some  worthy  value.  This  learner  is  interested  in  doing 
things.  When  he  comes  to  a  ppint  where  he  needs  assist- 
ance and  asks  for  it,  we  teach  him.  But,  in  order  to  help 
him,  we  must  know  what  he  is  doing,  what  terminology 
he  uses,  and  what  his  attitudes  and  biases  are.  In  other 
words,  the  teacher  must  not  only  know  how  to  do  things, 
but,  in  addition,  must  know  the  content  of  the  experience 
of  the  one  taught.  A  Frenchman  can  with  difficulty  teach 
an  Italian  in  French  words  if  the  Italian  knows  no  French. 
The  Frenchman  should  speak  in  Italian.  Children's  mean- 
ings are  almost  as  widely  different  from  those  of  adults  as 
French  language  is  from  the  Italian. 

This  makes  evident  at  once  the  distinction  between  carry- 
ing on  activities  and  teaching  others  how  to  carry  them  on. 
For  instance,  when  the  housewife  proceeds  to  teach  an 
untrained  servant  how  to  make  bread,  the  process  of  teach- 
ing differs  from  the  process  of  breadmaking  in  that  the 
housewife,  as  teacher,  has  to  translate  what  she  does  into 
terms  of  the  experience  of  the  one  taught.  We  say  ordi- 
narily that  she  has  to  make  the  servant  understand.  But 
this  means  that  the  making  of  bread  has  to  be  stated  in 
terms  of  what  the  learner  already  knows. 

Difficulties. — That  this  is  sometimes  a  difficult  thing 

119 


120  ME'iHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  do  becomes  evident  when,  in  terms  of  the  foregoing 
illustration,  we  think  of  the  mistress  endeavoring  to  teach 
an  untrained  domestic.  The  domestic  either  has  very  little 
content  of  experience ;  i.  e.,  is  ignorant,  or  she  is  so  different 
from  the  mistress  that  the  latter  cannot  get  an  understanding 
of  what  she  really  does  know  and  think.  To  illustrate 
further,  take  the  case  of  the  specialist  in  science  who  en- 
deavors to  teach.  He  may  be  able  to  solve  the  problems 
of  his  laboratory  with  the  greatest  skill  possible,  but  that 
does  not  necessarily  mean  that  he  can  teach  his  methods 
with  equal  success,  for  the  new  element  enters;  viz.,  that  of 
translating  his  methods  over  into  the  content  of  the  mind 
of  the  learner. 

It  must  fie  acknowledged  that  with  many  people  who 
teach,  the  real  problem  of  teaching  does  not  arise.  That  is 
to  say,  they  merely  state  the  process  by  which  they  arrive 
at  conclusions,  if  the  problem  is  an  intellectual  one;  or 
merely  perform  their  methods,  if  the  problem  is  a  manual 
one,  and  make  no  effort  to  translate  the  thing  they  are 
doing  into  the  experience  of  the  learner.  In  this  case  one 
of  three  results  follows.  The  learner  may  not  at  al! 
grasp  the  teacher's  method  of  doing  things.  Or,  he  may 
grasp  it  at  once  because  the  content  of  his  experience  is 
like  that  of  the  teacher.  Or,  after  a  process  of  hit-and-miss 
understanding,  he  may  finally  come  to  a  point  where  his 
content  is  sufficiently  like  the  teacher's  to  enable  him  to 
understand  the  teacher's  methods.  The  teacher  remains  in 
his  own  world,  and  to  the  pupil  is  relegated  the  duty  of 
coming  into  that  world. 

This  explains  why  the  teacher  who  as  a  student  was 
quick  or  brilliant  is  frequently  less  successful  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  professional  career  than  is  his  companion  to 
whom  learning  was  a  much  more  difficult  process.  The 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  121 

latter  is  nearer  to  and  better  understand^  the  content  and 
ability  of  the  minds  of  his  pupils.  This  also  explains  why 
the  teacher  with  intellectual  and  emotional  sympathy  has 
an  advantage  over  the  teacher  who  cannot  appreciate  the 
standpoint  of  other  people.  The  former  has  the  habit  of 
feeling  with  the  pupil,  the  latter  has  the  habit  of  living 
within  his  own  world.  Some  teachers  are  born  with  an 
intuitive  feeling  for  the  standpoint  of  children,  others  have 
to  achieve  it  by  laborious  effort,  and  still  others  fail  to 
attain  it. 

SECTION  2.     CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PUPILS 

Individual  Differences. — That  children  differ  one  from 
another  is  a  fact  patent  to  any  and  all  observers.  These 
differences  are  the  special  pride  of  parents  when  discussing 
their  offspring.  Our  system  of  uniform  instruction  in 
classes,  however,  tends  to  minimize  these  differences  and 
to  overemphasize  the  similarities.  This  tendency  to  teach 
children  in  mass  as  though  they  were  all  alike  is  almost 
irresistible.  Yet  the  differences  are  great  enough  to  deserve 
careful  consideration. 

Thorndike  has  made  an  analysis  of  these  differences  be- 
tween individuals  in  his  Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  68-98. l 
He  finds  that  children  differ  in  amount  of  specific  abilities 
and  that  small  differences  are  of  greater  frequency  than 
larger  ones.  That  is  to  say,  in  a  well-graded  class  most 
of  the  children  are  close  together  in  mental  ability,  but 
there  are  always  some  who  are  much  better  or  much  poorer 
than  the  average.  "The  worst  error  of  teachers  with  re- 
spect to  individual  differences  is  to  neglect  them,  to  form 
one  set  of  fixed  habits  for  dealing  with  all  children,  to  teach 
'the  child'  instead  of  countless  different  living  individuals. 

1  Also,  monograph  on  Individuality,  1911,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


122  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

To  realize  the  varieties  of  human  nature,  the  nature  and 
amount  of  mental  differences,  is  to  be  protected  against 
many  fallacies  of  teaching." 

The  general  mental  constitution  of  pupils  he  finds  to  be 
of  three  loosely  defined  types — intellectual,  emotional,  and 
active.  "Given  any  situation,  some  children  will  tend  to 
think  it  out,  others  to  respond  emotionally,  and  still  others 
to  do  something.  Propose  to  a  class  that  instead  of  two 
sessions  a  day  a  single  session  lasting  from  nine  till  two  be 
held.  Some  children  will  argue  pro  and  con;  others  will 
cry  out,  'Oh,  that  will  be  fine !'  or,  'I  don't  like  that  at  all' ; 
others  will  go  to  work  to  persuade  their  parents  to  vote  in 
favor  of  one  side  or  the  other,  will  start  petitions  and  the 
like." 

There  are  two  intellectual  types  among  children — those 
that  work  with  ideas,  and  those  that  work  with  things. 
"Some  children  manage  numbers,  words,  parts  of  speech, 
chemical  symbols,  and  the  like,  but  fail  relatively  in  measur- 
ing boards,  catching  fish,  cooking  meats,  or  making  toys. 
They  are  the  idea  thinkers.  Others  make  little  headway 
with  their  arithmetic,  grammar,  or  text-book  in  chemistry, 
but  succeed  in  the  shop,  the  woods,  and  the  laboratory. 
They  are  the  thing  thinkers.  There  is,  however,  no  oppo- 
sition between  these  two  types;  indeed,  a  high  degree  of 
skill  with  ideas  means  a  higher  than  average  skill  with 
things.  Still,  for  practical  purposes  we  can  classify  children 
by  their  special  strength  into  these  two  groups." 

Some  pupils  are  predominantly  visualizers,  others  audiles, 
and  still  others  motiles.  This  is  very  well  illustrated  in 
spelling.  Some  children  remember  spelling  best  by  looking 
at  the  words.  They  have  a  visual  picture  of  the  letters. 
Others  remember  best  the  sound  of  the  letters.  Still  others 
remember  the  correct  spelling  only  after  writing  it  out  or 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  123 

after  spelling  it  to  themselves,  thus  getting  the  muscular 
feel  in  the  hand  or  in  the  vocal  cords. 

Then,  again,  some  pupils  are  impulsive,  while  others  are 
very  deliberate.  "A  teacher  must  not  irritate  the  former 
by  forever  checking  their  natural  tendency  to  -jump  at 
actions,  or  the  latter  by  hurrying  them  on  to  what  seem  to 
them  impossibly  hasty  decisions.  Too  vigorous  opposition 
to  their  natural  bent  will  only  make  the  one  class  confused 
and  sulky,  and  the  other  nervous,  and  tearful.  We  must, 
by  sympathetic  and  ingenious  treatment,  bring  each  toward 
the  golden  mean  of  action  that  is  neither  rash  nor  tardy. 

"As  with  all  other  capacities,  there  are  wide  differences 
between  children  in  the  degree  of  suggestibility.  Ask  Mary, 
'Why  is  your  work  so  poor  today?  Have  you  a  headache?' 
and  in  a  half-hour  Mary  will  be  making  more  mistakes  than 
ever,  and  will  have  a  headache,  whether  she  had  one  before 
or  not.  Ask  Jane  the  same  question  in  a  similar  situation, 

and  the  reply  is  a  prompt,  'No,  Miss  -.  My  head 

is  all  right.  I  just  didn't  study  this  much.'  The  means  of 
allowing  for  and  of  utilizing  these  differences  are  either 
too  obvious  to  need  comment,  or  so  dependent  on  ingenuity 
rather  than  principle  as  to  be  learnable  only  through 
practice. 

"Individuals  may  be  graded  into  groups  with  respect  to 
the  speed,  vigor,  and  range  of  their  mental  processes,  on 
scales  of  quick  to  slow,  intense  to  weak,  and  broad  to 
narrow.  Teaching  must,  of  course,  make  allowance  for 
these  differences.  Some  first-rate  thinkers  are  puzzled  and 
discouraged  by  rapid  questions  or  drills.  Some  children 
think  and  feel  so  intensely  that  they  need  the  bit  of  calm- 
ness, humor;  and  relaxation  rather  than  the  spur  of  excite- 
ment or  rebuke.  Some  children  cannot  think  of  more  than 
one  thing  at  a  time,  and  are  lost  in  a  lesson  if  the  teacher 


124  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

introduces  side  issues  or  comparative  references  which  the 
broader-minded  child  follows  easily. 

"Individuals  may  also  be  graded  according  to  their  mental 
balance,  their  ability  to  see  things  in  proportion,  to  think 
and  act  with  common  sense.  In  little  children  these  differ- 
ences are  not  so  obvious  as  they  become  during  the  high- 
school  age.  At  that  period  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  lack 
of  mental  balance  shown  in  complaints  about  teachers, 
irregularity  in  school  work,  the  presence  of  eccentric  notions, 
and  inability  to  get  on  with  parents.  The  lack  of  mental 
balance  in  parents  themselves  is,  needless  to  say,  one  of  the 
greatest  obstacles  in  the  teacher's  path. 

"A.  practically  important  series  of  differences  in  tempera- 
ment concerns  the  qualities  of  hopefulness  and  suspicion. 
People,  even  as  children,  differ  greatly  in  their  expectation 
of  success  and  satisfaction  with  what  is,  apart-  from  any 
logical  basis.  Some  always  think  their  affairs  are  to  turn 
out  well,  and  think  whatever  they  do  or  have  or  see  is  fine ; 
their  clothes  always  fit  them — mentally  at  least ;  their  lessons 
are  always  well  done — in  their  opinion;  nothing  can  dis- 
turb their  imperturbable  satisfaction.  They  verge  toward 
the  delusions  of  grandeur  found  in  the  insane.  At  the 
opposite  extreme  are  those,  who  always  have  a  grudge, 
who  feel  put  upon,  who  are  ready  with  a  tale  of  injustice 
to  them,  who  are  sure  the  world  is  a  hard  place.  In  school 
they  are  forever  apologizing,  or  sulking,  or  complaining; 
in  perfect  kindness  they  see  some  slight,  in  perfect  health 
they  find  some  flaw.  These  verge  toward  the  delusions  of 
persecution  of  the  insane.  Both  groups  need  to  learn  to 
judge  objectively  by  facts,  not  subjectively  by  their  feelings 
about  them." 

And  finally,  there  are  differences  of  attitude  and  ways  of 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  125 

working  due  to  sex  which  become  apparent  early  in  school 
life. 

All  of  the  foregoing  differences  may  be  found  in  almost 
any  group  of  children  of  the  same  grade  in  school,  and 
they  are  important  for  the  teacher  to  reckon  with.  It  is  not 
possible,  of  course,  to  fit  the  course  of  study  to  each  one, 
since  they  must  be  handled  to  a  great  extent  in  mass,  par- 
ticularly in  large  classes.  But  if  the  differences  are  known 
and  utilized,  the  teacher  is  able,  on  the  one  hand,  to  fit 
the  work  more  intelligently  to  the  normal  pupils,  and,  on 
the  other,  to  deal  sympathetically  with  those  children  who 
deserve  and  need  special  attention,  either  because  they  are 
brighter  or  slower  than  the  majority. 

Genetic  Differences. — But  children  differ  as  well  fro'm 
year  to  year.  There  is,  of  course,  a  very  noticeable  differ- 
ence between  a  six-month  babe  and  that  same  babe  twenty 
years  later. 

If  we  could  know  definitely  the  general  constitution  of 
the  minds  of  children  in  each  of  the  grades  of  the  elemen- 
tary and  high  schools,  we  should  then  be  able  to  intelligently 
arrange  our  course  of  study  so  as  to  fit  the  dominant 
characteristic  of  each  grade.  If,  for  instance,  we  know 
definitely  what  instincts  are  dominant  in  the  fourth  grade, 
we  would  be  able  to  know  what  sort  of  reading  material  to 
give,  what  approach  to  make  to  geography  and  history 
material,  and  what  sort  of  industrial  work  to  carry  on. 

This  is  "a  consummation  devoutly  to  be  wished"  but  at 
present  far  from  realization.  Much  work  must  yet  be  done 
before  we  have  anything  sufficiently  definite  to  be  relied 
upon.  Several  attempts  have  been  made,  but  there  is  no 
body  of  reliable  data  at  hand  which  will  establish  any  one 
classification  and  refute  the  others.  We  need  to  have  a 


126  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

wide  range  of  statistical  observations  and  many  intensive 
studies  of  individual  children  before  the  facts  will  be  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  establish  any  generalization. 

Available  Instincts. — Pyle1  says  upon  these  points :  "If 
we  could  make  out  a  table  showing  the  orderly  appearance 
of  the  instincts  and  the  periods  of  their  dominance,  we 
could  then  arrange  the  curriculum  of  the  schools  to  corre- 
spond to  these  instinctive  activities.  But  the  matter  is  not 
simple.  The  time  of  first  appearance  of  the  various  instincts 
varies  much  according  to  the  reported  observations,  and 
their  periods  of  dominance  vary  still  more.  The  appearance 
of  an  instinctive  action,  even  after  the  structures  are  ready 
for  it,  depends  upon  the  appearance  of  the  situation  that 
normally  calls  forth  the  particular  form  of  response.  There 
is  a  variation  of  a  year  or  two  in  the  maturing  of  the 
structures  that  underlie  the  instincts.  And  even  after  the 
first  appearance  of  an  instinct,  the  future  course  is  entirely 
dependent  upon  experience.  An  instinctive  tendency  may 
be  early  subdued,  or  it  may  be  strengthened  and  perpetuated. 
The  nearest  we  can  come  to  a  solution  of  the  problem  is  to 
determine  by  statistical  studies  the  time  when,  on  the  aver- 
age, an  instinctive  tendency  is  at  its  -height,  and  in  some 
cases  this  may  be  sufficiently  definite  to  be  of  value  to 
education.  But  only  in  a  broad  way  can  the  instincts  deter- 
mine the  order  of  the  curriculum.  The  individual,  adaptive, 
and  environmental  instinctive  tendencies  are  all  operative 
when  the  child  enters  school,  and  can  be  depended  upon  to 
furnish  motive  and  initiative.  The  social  tendencies  are 
also  operative  and  grow  in  strength  steadily  till  maturity. 

The  fact  is  that  other  factors  are  more  important  in 
determining  the  arrangement  of  the  curriculum.  As  far 
as  his  instincts  are  concerned,  we  may  teach  a  six-year-old 

1  Outlines  of  Educational  Psychology,  pp.  246-7. 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  127 

boy  about  stars,  bugs,  flowers,  weeds,  stones,  rivers,  and 
mountains;  and  wise  teaching  doubtless  teaches  something 
about  all  these  things  from  the  beginning.  Since  the 
appearance  is  variable,  and  since  the  strength  of  instinctive 
tendencies  is  dependent  upon  experience,  and  therefore 
varies  immensely  for  different  individuals,  the  teacher  will 
have  to  ascertain  for  each  individual  case  what  instinctive 
tendencies  will  function  best  to  furnish  initiative  and  motive. 
At  any  rate,  the  instincts  will  have  to  be  taken  into  the 
laboratory  and  worked  out  with  a  great  deal  more  care  than 
has  ever  been  used  in  their  study  before  we  can  do  any- 
thing more  than  indicated.  However,  it  may  be  worth  while 
to  give  in  brief  form  the  results  of  various  studies  of 
instincts  and  the  emotive  instinctive  responses : 

Imitation. — First  appearance,  59th  day  (reflex),  I7ist 
day  (voluntary),  Dearborn;  in  second  half  of  first  year, 
Kirkpatrick;  6th  or  7th  month,  Baldwin;  I5th  week, 
Preyer;  237th  day,  Major;  4th  month,  Sully.  Most 
prominent  4th  to  7th  year,  Kirkpatrick. 

Play. — In  the  second  quarter  of  first  year,  Kirkpatrick, 
Major,  Shinn;  34ist  day,  Dearborn.  .Normally,  always 
operative  later. 

Migrating. — First  to  3rd  or  4th  year,  Kline ;  2nd  or  3rd 
year,  Kirkpatrick;  must  be  subdued  by  early  adolescence 
or  may  become  permanent  tendency.  .  • 

Collecting. — Not  later  than  the  3rd  year,  Burk;  in  the 
2nd  year,  Kirkpatrick;  at  its  height  at  10,  Burk. 

Construction. — Appears  9th  month,  Sully;  I3th  month, 
Tiedemann;  I4th  month,  Major.  Interest  in  construction 
is  prominent  throughout  school  life,  normally. 

Rivalry. — According  to  Kirkpatrick,  appears  in  the  4th 
or  5th  year.  It  may  be  relied  upon  to  function  throughout 
child-life. 


128  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Sympathy. — Seventh  and  8th  month,  Tracy;  I2th  month, 
Sully;  22nd  month,  Baldwin;  27th  month,  Major;  3rd 
year,  Kirkpatrick.  Later  responses  are  largely  due  to 
experience  and  training. 

Pride. — Nineteenth  month,  Preyer. 

Fear. — First  appears,  2nd  month,  Tracy  and  Shinn;  3rd 
month,  Major;  4th  month,  Dearborn  and  Preyer;  yth 
month,  Sully;  ist  year,  Kirkpatrick.  Fear  is  greatest  in 
3rd  and  4th  years,  according  to  Kirkpatrick. 

Anger. — In  young  babies,  Kirkpatrick ;  loth  month, 
Darwin  and  Preyer;  2nd  month,  Perez. 

Curiosity. — Twenty-second  week,  Preyer.  Under  proper 
conditions,  curiosity  functions  throughout  school  life." 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  all  the  important 
instinctive  tendencies,  except  the  socialistic,  function  nor- 
mally throughout  the  school  life  of  the  child.  The  strength 
of  these  tendencies  depends  upon  the  demands  made  upon 
them  in  the  experience  of  the  child.  The  older  and  more 
fundamental  to  the  life  of  man  the  tendency,  the  more 
independent  it  is  of  experience. 

The  teacher,  then,  has  to  make  a  careful  study  of  his 
classes  to  see  which  of  the  instincts  are  functioning  at  their 
maximum,  and  upon  that  basis  may  arrange  his  course. 

For  centuries  chief  reliance  was  placed  upon  curiosity 
and  imitation,  as  a  cursory  study  of  the  history  of  teaching 
very  well  shows.  From  the  time  of  Froebel  more  use  has 
been  made  of  play,  and  lately  constructiveness  and  the 
social  instincts  have  begun  to  be  utilized.  An  interesting 
fact  about  this  swing  of  emphasis  from  one  to  the  other 
is  that  the  use  of  play  and  constructiveness  does  not  cause 
teachers  to  discard  curiosity  and  imitation.  For,  as  was 
pointed  out  in  the  first  chapter,  when  a  new  method  is 
utilized,  and  even  sometimes  pushed  to  excess,  in  the  end 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  129 

it  does  not  supplant  the  older  valuable  methods,  but  takes 
its  place  beside  them  if  it  demonstrates  its  value. 

Because  of  their  importance  and  their  relative  newness,  a 
short  explanation  of  the  use  and  value  of  constructiveness 
and  the  social  instinct  will  be  well  worth  while. 

Constructiveness. — Until  recently  children  have  in 
school  been  assumed  to  be  intellectual  beings  merely, 
and  little  stress  has  been  laid  upon  their  interest  in  con- 
structing things. 

"Some  few  years  ago  I  was  looking  about  the  school 
supply  stores  in  the  city,  trying  to  find  desks  and  chairs 
which  seemed  thoroughly  suitable  from  all  points  of  view — 
artistic,  hygienic,  and  educational — to  the  needs  of  the 
children.  We  had  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  finding  what 
we  needed,  and  finally  one  dealer,  more  intelligent  than  the 
rest,  made  this  remark:  'I  am  afraid  we  have  not  what 
you  want.  You  want  something  for  the  children  to  work 
at;  these  are  all  for  listening.'  That  tells  the  story  of  the 
traditional  education.  Just  as  the  biologist  can  take  a 
bone  or  two  and  reconstruct  the  whole  animal,  so,  if  we 
put  before  the  mind's  eye  the  ordinary  schoolroom,  with 
its  rows  of  ugly  desks  placed  in  geometrical  order,  crowded 
together  so  that  there  shall  be  as  little  moving  room  as 
possible,  the  desks  almost  all  of  the  same  size,  with  just 
space  enough  to  hold  books,  pencils,  and  paper,  and  add  a 
table,  some  chairs,  the  bare  walls,  and  possibly  a  few  pic- 
tures, we  can  reconstruct  the  only  educational  activity  that 
can  possibly  go  on  in  such  a  place.  It  is  all  made  'for 
listening' — for  simply  studying  lessons  out  of  a  book  is 
only  another  kind  of  listening;  it  marks  the  dependency 
of  one  mind  upon  another.  The  attitude  of  listening  means, 
comparatively  speaking,  passivity,  absorption;  that  there 
are  certain  ready-made  results  which  are  there,  which  have 


130  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

been  prepared  by  the  school  superintendent,  the  board,  the 
teacher,  and  of  which  the  child  is  to  take  in  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  least  possible  time."1 

But  with  the  realization  of  the  fact  that  pupils  are  pre- 
dominantly interested  in  muscular  activity  in,  at  least,  the 
early  grades,  several  attempts  have  been  made  to  so  build 
the  course  of  study  that  education  shall  come  in  part 
through  building  things.  For,  in  order  to  build,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  learn  arithmetic,  to  draw,  to  talk,  and  to  think. 
Particularly  is  thinking  better,  because  they  think  in  terms 
of  concrete  cases  which  they  understand,  rather  thar 
memorize  abstract  matter  that  is  foreign  to  them.  The 
methods  used  for  doing  this  work  are  outlined  later  in 
Chapter  XIV,  where  descriptions  are  given  and  references 
cited  for  class  reading. 

While  most  of  the  work  attempted  in  the  use  of  con- 
structive activities  has  taken  it  as  a  center  in  the  lower 
grades,  and  while  the  typical  American  school  has  con- 
structive work  in  the  higher  grades  in  isolation  from  all 
other  subjects,  there  is  a  very  good  opportunity  at  hand 
for  using  it  not  as  a  center  or  in  isolation,  but  as  illustra- 
tive material  in  the  higher  grades  and  the  high  school.  The 
chief  objection  raised  is  that  it  takes  too  much  time  to  have 
the  pupils  draw,  use  sand  tables,  make  illustrations  from 
wood,  paper,  and  clay.  But  it  ought  not  to  be  hard  for  a 
teacher  to  obviate  this  difficulty. 

A  very  good  plan  for  doing  this  illustrative  work  in  the 
sixth  grade  is  to  select  one  text,  such  as  the  history  text 
for  the  grade.  The  teacher  should  run  through  the  text 
and  select  those  situations,  events,  and  topics  which  are 
capable  of  easy  illustration  by  drawing,  wood,  sand,  clay, 

1  Dewey,  The  School  and  Society,  pp.  43-4. 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  131 

or  paper.  Before  the  time  for  taking  up  a  topic  arrives, 
the  teacher  should  consider  the  simplest  way  of  having  the 
illustrative  material  made.  When  the  time  arrives  the  illus- 
tration should  be  made  simply  and  expeditiously  with  the 
idea  in  mind  that  it  need  be  no  better  than  is  necessary  for 
illustration.  This  latter  point  is  of  importance,  because 
when  pupils,  and  teachers,  too,  get  interested  in  a  sand 
representation  of  Dutch  life  and  geography,  they  are  usually 
obsessed  with  the  desire  to  putter  around,  putting  in  little 
non-essential  details  which  waste  time  and  add  nothing  to 
the  illustrative  value  of  the  work.  To  illustrate  well,  only 
outlines,  sketches,  so  to  speak,  are  necessary. 

Frequently  different  parts  of  the  illustrative  material  can 
be  assigned  to  different  pupils.  And  if  anything  perma- 
nent is  made  it  can  be  kept  in  the  class  "museum"  for  other 
children  who  come  later. 

The  Social  Instinct  and  Group  Work. — Another  still 
later  tendency  is  to  have  the  pupils  co-operate  in  groups. 
This  is  in  opposition  to  the  individualistic  attitude  of  the 
traditional  school  which  requires  pupils  to  work  by  them- 
selves and  to  be  held  responsible  for  a  lesson  only  to  the 
teacher.  The  feeling  at  the  basis  of  this  attitude  is  that 
pupils  will  be  likely  to  get  too  much  assistance  if  they  work 
together,  and  particularly  the  weak  students  will  be  injured. 
This  feeling  has,  of  course,  some  justification,  and  working 
in  groups  has  to  be  safeguarded. 

However,  the  advantages  of  group  work  are  great,  as  is 
shown  in  the  work  of  Scott,  whose  account  is  full  of 
human-interest  stories.  It  is  evident  from  his  account  that 
pupils  can  get  great  value  from  working  together.  His 
earlier  experiments  were  carried  on  by  allowing  pupils  to 
organize  into  groups  to  do  anything  they  wished,  subject 


132  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  certain  restrictions  set  by  the  teacher.  An  account  of 
this,  which  cannot  be  summarized  without  ruining  its  value, 
is  found  in  the  reference  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

But  he  tried  the  experiment  also  later  in  regular  class 
work  in  history,  science,  arithmetic,  reading,  language  and 
literature,  the  manual  arts,  and  the  fine  arts.  The  whole  of 
his  text  from  page  102  on  should  be  read  in  detail  by 
every  student  of  methods  of  teaching.  Here  I  shall  describe 
briefly  only  the  work  done  in  history  in  the  elementary 
school. 

Miss  Lotta  Clark,  who  carried  on  the  experiment,  says  r1 
"I  talked  the  matter  over  with  my  classes  and  asked  them 
how  they  would  like  to  make  the  experiment  of  conducting 
their  history  lessons  themselves.  The  novelty  of  the  idea 
pleased  them,  and  after  considerable  informal  discussion 
we  decided  to  carry  on  our  recitations  in  the  form  of  busi- 
ness meetings.  A  chairman  was  appointed  from  the  class 
to  take  charge  of  the  meeting,  and  there  was  something 
of  a  sensation  when  I  exchanged  chairs  with  him.  He 
appointed  committees  to  nominate  candidates  for  a  presi- 
dent, vice-president,  and  secretary.  These  officers  were 
elected  by  ballot  for  one  month,  and  their  duties  were  de- 
cided upon  by  the  class.  We  had  an  amusing  time  when 
they  tried  to  decide  what  they  ought  to  do  with  me.  I  told 
them  I  was  going  to  do  just  as  little  as  possible  in  the  class, 
so  that  they  could  have  all  the  time  and  opportunity  there 
was.  They  finally  decided  to  call  me  the  'executive  officer,' 
with  power  to  exercise  full  authority  if  necessity  required. 

"The  pupils  carried  on  the  recitation  with  the  teacher  in 
the  background  to  see  that  all  went  well.  But  the  impor- 
tant outgrowth  of  this  was  that  one  boy  took  upon  himself 
to  read  books  and  bring  in  interesting  illustrative  material ; 

1  Scott,  Social  Education,  pp.  150-156. 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  133 

a  girl  asked  to  contribute  drawings — copies  of  pictures  in 
books  not  available  for  the  whole  class ;  another  boy  asked 
to  use  his  camera  to  take  photographs  of  Art  Museum  casts 
of  characters  in  the  history  work."  Says  Miss  Clark :  "We 
did  all  these  things  and  many,  many  more;  and  these  sug- 
gestions led  to  the  richest  development  of  all  in  the  work 
of  this  year.  The  classes  formed  themselves  into  little  in- 
formal clubs,  met  at  recess  and  after  school,  and  decided 
what  each  would  do  to  contribute  something  interesting  to 
the  lessons.  There  were  the  drawing  clubs  and  the  camera 
clubs,  while  the  club  that  brought  in  pictures  and  newspaper 
clippings,  and  told  interesting  accounts  which  they  had 
read,  called  themselves  the  Sidelights  Club." 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  practicability  of  this 
plan  by  which  the  pupils  take  over  the  work  of  the  class 
and  the  teacher  works  in  the  background,  always  interested, 
always  alert,  and  constantly  holding  high  standard  of  effort. 
This  plan  does  for  all  subjects  what  is  later  pointed  out  in 
Chapter  XV  for  language.  If  the  pupils  feel  that  they  can 
contribute  something  to  the  class  they  will  work  harder  just 
as  adults  do.  The  greatest  handicap  to  effort  is  the  feeling 
that  what  I  know,  the  teacher  knows  and  most  of  the  other 
pupils  know,  so  what's  the  use  of  saying  anything. 

Strayer1  gives  two  examples  which  are  so  interesting  that 
they  may  be  quoted : 

"In  a  class  in  nature  study  in  a  fourth  grade  a  boy  told 
a  wonderful  story  of  the  activities  of  a  squirrel.  Ordinarily 
the  teacher  might  have  been  expected  to  tell  the  boy  that 
the  story  was  untrue  and  that  she  did  not  want  that  kind 
of  stories.  In  this  class,  however,  the  children  felt  responsi- 
ble for  the  contributions  which  were  made.  The  story  had 
no  sooner  been  told  than  the  narrator  was  plied  with  ques- 

1  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  pp.  131-2. 


134  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tions.  Where  had  he  seen  the  squirrel?  On  what  kind  of 
a  tree?  What  was  the  color  of  the  squirrel?  Just  when 
did  the  events  related  happen?  The  boy  could  not  answer 
these  questions  satisfactorily,  and  finally  admitted  that  his 
story  had  a  very  slight  basis  in  fact.  The  rebuke  thus 
administered  by  his  classmates  probably  did  more  toward 
giving  this  boy  respect  for  truth  than  a  dozen  statements 
by  the  teacher  that  his  contribution  was  unsatisfactory. 

"In  an  eighth-grade  class  the  children  were  discussing  the 
panic  of  '73.  One  of  the  boys  maintained  that  the  causes 
of  panics  were,  in  general,  the  same,  regardless  of  the 
activities  of  a  few  individuals  occupying  important  posi- 
tions in  government  or  in  the  commercial  world.  His  con- 
tention was  mainly  that  it  was  unfair  to  charge  a  president 
or  a  political  party  with  the  distress  occasioned  by  a  panic, 
when  in  reality  the  cause  was  to  be  found  in  economic  condi- 
tions over  which  neither  president  nor  party  had  control. 
One  of  the  girls  in  the  class  objected,  and  cited  as  proof 
the  panic  of  '37,  which  she  claimed  was  caused  by  President 
Jackson.  The  teacher  could  have  settled  the  question  imme- 
diately by  an  authoritative  statement,  which  most  classes  of 
children  would  have  accepted.  In  this  class,  however,  the 
teacher  encouraged  the  class  to  participate  in  the  discussion. 
In  the  end  the  members  of  the  class  consulted  text-books 
and  other  more  complete  histories,  and  reached  their  own 
decision  with  comparatively  little  help  from  the  teacher. 
The  value  of  this  work  in  history  consisted  mainly  in  the 
fact  that  the  children,  having  once  discovered  the  problem, 
felt  responsible  for  its  solution.  They  were  engaged  in  the 
liveliest  kind  of  thinking  and  discussion.  They  were  learn- 
ing where  to  go,  and  what  materials  to  use  in  the  solution 
of  this  kind  of  problem." 

The  method  is  capable  of  infinite  variation  suited  to  the 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  135 

needs  of  an  alert  teacher.  Children  love  to  accept  responsi- 
bility and  to  contribute  things  that  are  worth  while  to  the 
class,  or  to  the  teacher,  if  they  really  feel  that  it  is  a  con- 
tribution to  the  store  of  knowledge  of  the  group.  Such 
work  relieves  the  monotony  of  the  pouring  in  and  giving 
back  of  the  individual  work  of  the  traditional  schoolroom. 
There  is,  of  course,  a  very  definite  place  for  individual 
responsibility,  and  this  needs  to  be  felt  by  the  pupil  toward 
the  teacher,  but  whenever  it  can  be  lightened  and  varied  by 
the  feeling  of  responsibility  for  contributing  to  the  class  and 
keeping  up  to  standards  set  by  the  class,  good  work  and 
increased  interest  is  the  beneficent  result. 

Summary. — Children  differ  among  themselves.  The 
majority  of  the  pupils  in  a  wrell-graded  class  are  practically 
equal  in  ability  but  some  are  always  brighter  and  some 
slower.  They  differ  in  temperament,  some  being  students, 
others  strongly  emotional,  and  still  others  practical.  They 
are  different,  too,  in  their  types  of  imagery,  some  being  pre- 
dominantly visualizers,  others  motiles,  and  still  others 
audiles.  Then,  again,  girls  differ  from  boys  in  ways  of 
working. 

Children  also  differ  from  year  to  year  as  the  instincts 
mature  and  the  environment  changes.  Up  to  date,  these 
changes  have  not  yet  been  charted  with  sufficient  accuracy 
to  give  the  teacher  definite  information  as  to  the  maximum 
periods  of  each.  It  is,  however,  fairly  well  demonstrated 
that  during  school  life  all  of  the  instincts  are  functioning 
and  that  appeal  can  be  made  to  any  of  them  subject  to 
individual  differences  in  pupils  and  to  the  unknown  point  of 
their  maximum  intensity.  In  particular,  in  present  day 
school  work,  appeal  is  made  to  five:  curiosity,  imitation, 
play,  constructiveness  and  co-operation.  As  a  result  each 
teacher  needs  to  work  out  for  himself  his  own  scheme  for 


136  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

each  individual  class,  or  a  more  general  one  for  all  classes 
of  a  certain  age. 

SECTION  3.    THE  CULTURE  EPOCH  THEORY 

The  Recapitulation  and  Culture  Epoch  Theories. — A 
very  interesting  attempt  to  mark  off  the  periods  of  child- 
hood have  been  made  in  the  recapitulation  and  the  culture 
epoch  'theories.  Both  these  theories  claim  that,  from  con- 
ception to  maturity,  man,  before  birth  and  after,  passes 
through  all  the  stages  that  the  race  has  passed  through  in 
its  evolution  from  the  dawn  of  life  on  this  planet.  It  is 
pointed  out  that  the  human  ovum  begins  as  a  one-cell  organ- 
ism and  then  passes  through  foetal  stages  in  which  it  can- 
not be  readily  distinguished  from  the  foetus  of  fish,  rep- 
tiles, birds,  and  mammals. 

It  is  carried  further  in  asserting  that  after  birth  the  child 
passes  through  the  stages  of  civilization  of  the  race.  If  the 
periods  of  racial  development  are  (after  Chamberlain)  the 
rooting  and  grubbing  stages,  the  hunting  stage,  the  pastoral 
stage,  the  agricultural,  and  the  commercial  stage,  then  the 
theory  claims  that,  in  its  general  outlines,  childhood  passes 
through  each  of  these  stages.  In  the  first  stage  the  child 
uses  the  mouth  as  a  criterion  for  everything;  in  the  second 
stage  we  find  children  fearing  strangers,  stalking  imaginary 
game ;  in  the  third  is  evidenced  a  fondness  for  pets  and  the 
desire  to  own  things ;  in  the  fourth  foresight  begins  to 
develop  and  a  passion  for  gardening  arises ;  and  in  the  fifth 
come  bulging  pockets,  demand  for  pay  for  service,  recogni- 
tion of  value  and  sense  of  arithmetic. 

The  first  of  these  stages  extends  to  five  years,  reaching 
its  culmination  in  the  third  year;  the  second  extends  from 
four  to  twelve  years,  with  its  highest  development  in  the 
seventh  year;  the  third  period  extends  from  nine  to  four- 
teen, with  its  greatest  intensity  in  the  tenth  year ;  the  fourth 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 


137 


period  from  twelve  to  sixteen,  with  its  maximum  in  the 
twelfth  year;  and  the  fifth  from  fourteen  to  forty,  with  its 
greatest  intensity  in  the  eighteenth  to  twentieth  years.1 

The  culture  epoch  advocates  seek,  in  addition  to  naming 
the  stages  of  childhood  by  a  recapitulation  theory,  to  deter- 
mine what  subject-matter  should  be  in  each  period.  Many 
classifications  of  stages  are  given  by  different  writers.  Of 
these  Rein's  scheme  is  interesting  as  showing  the  racial 
stages,  the  school  years  that  correspond  to  them  and  the 
subject-matter  to  be  studied  (in  the  German  Folk  School).2 


SCHOOL 
YEAR 


MATERIALS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF 
EPOCHS 


1 

Folklore  and  Fairy  Tales 

Mythical  and  Heroic 
Mind 

•2 

Robinson  Crusoe 

3 

Sacred 
Patriarchs  and 

Moses 

Profane 
Thuringian 
Tales 

4 

Judges  and 
Kings 

Nibelungen 
Tales 

5 

Life  of  Christ 

Christianizing 
and  Kaiser 
Period 

Mediaeval   State   build- 
ing 

6 

Life  of  Christ 

Kaiser  Period 

Historic  Mind 

7 

Paul 

Reformation 

Social  and  Political 
Development.      Scientific 
and  Philosophic  Mind 

8 

Luther 

Nationaliza- 
tion 

Criticism  of  Culture  Epoch  Theory. — The  chief  trouble 
with  the  culture  epoch  theory  is  that  while  it  is  a  pretty 
theory  it  will  not  work.  It  is  impossible  to  take  a  class  of 
children  and  find  these  stages  standing  out  in  any  definite 
way.  In  a  very  general  way  there  may  be  some  parallelism 
between  the  development  of  the  race  and  of  the  child,  but  it 
is  not  sufficiently  definite  for  the  educator  to  use  in  building 
a  course  of  study  upon. 

For  a  fuller  statement  of  the  recapitulation  and  the  cul- 
ture epoch  theories  and  for  a  complete  criticism,  references 
at  the  end  of  this  chapter  have  been  given. 

1  Chamberlain,  The  Child,  pp.  51-105. 

2  Van  Liew,  Year  Book  of  Herbart  Society,  Vol.  i,  p.  99. 


138  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

SECTION  4.    THE  TEACHER'S  TOOLS 

In  translating  his  ways  of  acting  into  terms  of  his  pupils' 
experience,  the  teacher  has  several  tools  that  he  can  use. 

Necessity  of  Sympathy. — That  there  is  need  for  both 
emotional  and  intellectual  sympathy  with  the  pupil  is  incon- 
trovertible. We  have  seen  that  knowledge  grows  by  the 
reorganizing  of  experiences.  Teaching  is  not  a  pouring-in 
process.  Facts  cannot  be  hypodermically  injected.  The 
teacher  may  think  that  he  has  performed  such  an  operation, 
but  he  may  rest  assured  that  no  matter  what  the  fact  means 
to  him,  its  meaning  to  the  pupil  is  determined  by  the  facts 
which  he  already  possesses,  and  by  the  relations  which  the 
new  fact  sets  up  with  what  he  already  knows.  Even  when  the 
teacher  thinks  that  he  has  translated  his  subject-matter  into 
terms  of  the  child's  experience,  he  may  find  that  a  different 
meaning  from  that  intended  has  been  given.  This  calls  to 
mind  the  case  of  the  teacher  who  laboriously  endeavored  to 
make  clear  the  nature  of  a  volcano  by  building  up  a  cone  of 
sand  upon  the  sand  table,  and  having  made  it  realistic  by 
lighting  some  decapitated  firecrackers  in  an  aperture  at  the 
top,  rested  content  with  his  illustration.  His  feeling  of  com- 
plete defeat  may  be  imagined  when  the  next  day  one  of  his 
little  boys  said,  "Please,  teacher,  may  we  have  some  more 
of  the  fireworks  today?" 

The  concept  of  apperception  emphasizes  this  same  fact. 
Whatever  may  be  its  shortcomings,  it  has  succeeded  ad- 
mirably in  showing  us  that  new  ideas  are  interpreted  in 
terms  of  old,  that  nothing  absolutely  new  can  be  added  to 
experience  like  potatoes  to  a  bin,  but  that  each  idea  appre- 
hended must  be  apprehended  in  terms  of  what  is  already 
present,  even  though  on  that  account  wrongly  apprehended. 
For  a  good  little  monograph  on  this  subject,  read  Rooper's 
Pot  of  Green  Feathers. 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  139 

This  necessity  is  further  emphasized  when  we  reflect  that 
the  inexperienced  teacher  is  farther  removed  from  the  child's 
standpoint  than  is  the  average  individual.  The  teacher  is 
highly  intellectualized ;  he  is  a  student  of  books ;  he  has  the 
habit  of  analyzing  his  ways  of  thinking  and  acting,  and  of 
performing  this  analysis  in  a  highly  abstract  way.  His  vo- 
cabulary is  generally  literary  and  scientific;  his  world  is 
scholarly.  The  average  individual,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
concrete  in  his  thinking,  he  has  an  unscientific  vocabulary, 
he  thinks  in  empirical  terms.  The  teacher,  therefore,  must 
make  greater  deliberate  effort  to  get  on  the  level  of  his 
pupils  than  would  the  average  individual.  He  must  at  times 
deliberately  step  out  of  his  own  world  and  enter  that  of 
the  child  if  the  latter  is  to  be  led  back  with  him  into  his 
larger  world. 

What  we  have  been  saying  applies  to  the  teaching  process 
in  general.  The  preacher  who  teaches  religious  truths,  the 
political  campaigner  who  convinces  his  audiences,  the  father 
who  explains  facts  and  principles  to  his  child,  the  merchant 
who  shows  the  new  clerk  what  to  do,  the  musician  who 
touches  the  hearts  of  the  people,  all  must  translate  the  thing 
they  wish  to  teach  over  into  the  experience  of  those  whom 
they  are  trying  to  teach. 

Introspection. — In  spite  of  the  wide  gap  between  the 
experience  of  the  adult  teacher  and  that  of  the  child,  the 
most  fruitful  source  to  which  the  teacher  can  turn  is  his 
own  experience.  When  the  teacher  is  trying  to  foresee  the 
difficulties  that  the  child  will  meet  in  grasping  the  problem 
upon  which  he  is  bent,  and  to  forearm  himself  with  methods 
for  removing  those  difficulties,  he  is  forced  in  the  last  analy- 
sis to  consider  what  he  himself  finds  to  be  the  difficulties. 
If  he  is  to  teach  problems  in  arithmetic  he  studies  them 
with  a  view  to  finding  out  what  are  the  crucial  points — 


140 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


the  points  that  are  likely  to  give  difficulty  to  the  pupils ;  and 
in  doing  this  he  has  no  other  recourse  than  to  his  own  ex- 
perience, unless  it  be  to  the  recollection  of  the  difficulties 
that  former  pupils  have  had.  And  again,  in  determining 
the  best  way  of  explaining  the  difficulties  to  the  children 
from  among  various  methods  which  may  suggest  them- 
selves, he  makes  choice  according  to  standards  of  clearness 
and  simplicity  as  set  up  by  his  own  mind. 

This,  of  course,  implies  that  in  his  introspection  he  imag- 
ines himself,  as  well  as  he  can,  to  be  in  the  pupil's  place, 
with  the  pupil's  standpoint  and  degree  of  development.  In 
other  words,  in  this  introspection  he  examines  his  child  self 
rather  than  his  adult  self. 

The  same  principle  applies  in  discipline.  When  the  teacher 
has  a  problem  in  discipline,  and  is  seeking  for  the  best  way 
of  handling  it,  he  again  appeals  to  his  own  experience,  and 
particularly  to  his  child  self.  He  considers  the  question, — 
Does  this  plan  that  I  am  about  to  follow  appeal  to  me  as 
fair?  Would  it  have  helped  me  into  the  proper  attitude 
toward  some  one  in  authority  over  me  when  I  was  a  child? 
Would  it  have  produced  the  proper  results  upon  me  if  tried 
by  some  one  else?  In  other  words,  the  value  of  sympathy 
to  the  teacher  is  essentially  that  of  being  able  to  make  his 
experience  congruous  with  the  pupil's  in  order  that  by 
introspection  he  may  decide  what,  to  his  congruous  experi- 
ence, seems  the  most  satisfactory  thing  to  do.  This  ability 
to  vividly  recall  childhood  in  all  its  phases  and  sentiments 
and  little  judgments  is  admirably  presented  in  the  early 
part  of  David  Copperfield. 

Psychology. — Another  aid  which  has  been  overrated 
by  some  and  underrated  by  others  is  psychology.  This 
subject  aids  the  teacher  because  it  gives  a  scientific  account 
of  the  ways  in  which  experience  operates  in  securing  effi- 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  141 

ciency.  It  is  important  because  it  is  scientific.  It  aids 
untrained  introspection  by  helping  it  to  see  the  great  and 
fundamental  processes  that  operate  in  experience.  A 
teacher  is  unwise  if  he  pays  no  attention  to  it,  because  it  is 
clearly  evident  from  the  long  history  of  psychology  that 
no  one  man,  even  of  commanding  intellect,  is  able  unaided 
to  discover  all  these  processes.  A  great  army  of  men  have 
spent  their  lives  investigating  these  things  and  giving  a 
scientific  account  of  them.  And  no  teacher  with  the  multi- 
tudinous duties  of  the  schoolroom  to  hamper  him,  is  able 
to  get  without  help  as  clear  a  conception  of  the  working 
of  the  mind  as  he  can  get  by  utilizing  the  fruit  of  their 
labors.  If  he  does  not  use  it,  it  is  as  though  he  kept  his 
capital  idle  instead  of  investing  it.  Moreover,  psychology 
will  give  him  certainty  that  he  is  not  setting  up  artificial 
aims,  and  that  he  is  not  using  ineffectual  and  perverting 
methods. 

Psychology  has  three  fields  which  are  of  value  to  the 
teacher:  First,  general  psychology,  which  treats  of  the 
mental  processes  of  the  normal  adult;  second,  educational 
psychology,  which  applies  the  principles  of  other  branches 
of  psychology  to  educational  problems;  and  third,  genetic 
psychology,  which  treats  of  the  growth  of  the  content  and 
processes  of  experience.  The  chief  merit  of  genetic  psy- 
chology is  that  it  emphasizes  the  fact  that  at  different  ages 
the  child  has  a  different  content  of  experience,  is  dominated 
by  different  interests,  and  possesses  varying  fineness  and 
persistence  of  activity. 

Theory  of  Method. — Another  aid  in  solving  the  prob- 
lems of  teaching  is  found  in  a  study  of  the  methods  of 
teaching.  Essentially,  a  study  of  teaching  is  reflection 
upon  the  way  that  subject-matter  grows  and  organizes 
itself.  It  differs  from  psychology  in  that,  while  psychology 


142 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


treats  of  the  child  in  terms  of  the  processes  of  experience, 
such  as  memory,  imagination,  etc.,  methods  of  teaching  deal 
with  the  ways  in  which  the  child  gets  control  of  subject- 
matter.  For  pedagogical  purposes  they  both  deal  with 
the  same  great  problems  and  are  closely  interrelated,  being 
two  aspects  of  the  same  thing,  but  differing  in  the  point  of 
view  from  which  each  is  studied.  The  great  problems  of 
the  theory  of  method  are  essentially  those  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  racial  subject-matter,  of  getting  the  child  to  start 
to  work  upon  subject-matter,  getting  him  to  organize 
his  subject-matter,  and  of  applying  these  organizations  to 
the  handling  of  other  units  of  subject-matter.  And,  as  we 
have  said,  in  working  upon  these  problems  the  teacher  re- 
flects upon  his  own  methods  of  organization,  upon  the  way 
in  which  racial  subject-matter  is  organized,  and,  finally, 
studies,  by  means  of  practical  experience,  the  ways  in  which 
subject-matter  is  organized  in  the  experience  of  everybody, 
especially  children.  As  a  result  of  this  reflection  he  arrives 
at  the  principles  of  pedagogy  and  methods  of  teaching. 

Practical  Experience. — All  the  aids  that  we  have  men- 
tioned may  be  well  in  hand  before  any  practical  teaching 
has  been  engaged  in.  They  are  part  of  the  equipment  with 
which  professional  schools  should  provide  the  teacher.  But 
let  the  inexperienced  teacher  try  as  he  will,  he  is  sometimes 
unable  to  build  up  within  himself  an  experience  in  harmony 
with  that  of  his  pupils.  The  difficulties  which  he  imag- 
ines, may  be  only  a  few  of  the  many  difficulties  which  the 
child  may  have.  The  method  of  explanation  which  seems 
perfectly  obvious  to  him  may  be  turgid  to  his  pupils.  The 
methods  of  discipline  which  seem  fair  to  him  may  to  the 
child  seem  unfair;  even  his  child  self  may  be  too  mature 
to  approximate  very  closely  to  the  pupil's  experience.  More- 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  143 

over,  his  study  of  psychology  may  have  given  him  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  psychology  without  giving  him  a 
knowledge  of  their  peculiarities  of  combination  in  indi- 
vidual children,  and  his  principles  of  pedagogy  and  methods 
of  teaching  may  be  merely  principles  and  methods  which, 
so  far  as  he  is  concerned,  have  yet  to  be  tried  on  in  actual 
practice.  He  has  not  as  yet  met  the  child  on  his  native 
heath;  he  has  verified  the  principles  which  he  has  accepted 
merely  by  an  appeal  to  his  own  experience,  or  by  an  appeal 
to  the  records  of  child  experience  contained  in  books.  He 
has,  therefore,  many  problems  to  work  out  before  he  can 
translate  his  experience,  his  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  his 
attitude  toward  life,  over  into  the  experience  of  the  chil- 
dren who  now,  for  the  first  time,  are  actually  before  him. 
At  this  point  practical  experience  enters  as  the  last  aid  in 
helping  him  solve  this  problem. 

Practical  experience  is  of  so  much  importance  that  some 
have  claimed  that  it  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  mak- 
ing of  a  teacher.  But  in  considering  this  statement  we 
have  to  distinguish  clearly  betwreen  empirical  and  scientific 
experience.  By  empirical  experience  we  mean  that  acquaint- 
ance with  teaching  w^hich  is  picked  up  by  the  teacher  in  a 
naive  way.  By  scientific  experience  we  mean  that  experi- 
ence which  is  secured  in  actual  teaching  when  the  teacher  is 
armed  with  the  principles  and  the  theories  of  teaching  which 
enable  him  to  interpret  wrhat  is  taking  place,  and  to  react  to  it 
according  to  the  fundamental  ways  of  acting  which  his 
principles  provide  for  him.  We  cannot,  therefore,  make 
the  broad  assertion  that  practical  experience  is  the  most 
important  aid  to  the  teacher.  Empirical  experience  may  be 
a  positive  detriment  to  him,  as  any  teacher  in  a  normal 
school  or  teachers'  college  can  testify.  But  such  is  not  the 


144  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

case  with  scientific  experience.  Its  assistance  is  powerful; 
it  throws  light  upon  the  teacher's  psychological  principles, 
and  gives  content  and  meaning  to  his  theories  of  teaching. 

REFERENCES    FOR   CLASS    READING 

Strayer.  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  pp.  15-27. 
On  Stages  of  Child  Life: 

Chamberlain.     The  Child,    pp.  54-64. 
Dopp.   The  Place  of  Industries  in  Education,  pp.  104-171. 
Kirkpatrick.   The  Individual  in  the  Making,   pp.  55-60. 
On  the  Culture  Epoch  Theory : 

Bolton.    Principles  of  Education,    pp.   108-118;  also  pp. 

63-107. 

Van  Liew.   Herbartian  Year  Book.  Vol.  i,  pp.  78-103. 
Dewey.   Herbartian  Year  Book.   Vol.  2,  pp.  89-95. 
Baldwin.    Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  in  the 

Race,  pp.  17-35. 

Montgomery.    The  Analysis  of  Racial  Descent  in  Ani- 
mals,  pp.  189-194. 
On  Individual  Differences: 

Thorndike.    Principles  of  Teaching,   pp.  68-98. 
On  the  Constructive  Instinct : 

Dewey.    The  School  and  Society,  pp.  43-65. 
On  the  Social  Instincts : 

Scott.    Social  Education,    pp.   102-115,  150-156. 
Strayer.    A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,     pp. 
129-138. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  examples  outside  of  school  in  which  experts 
were  poor  teachers. 

2.  Classify  twenty  of  your  friends  on  the  basis  of  tem- 
perament— intellectual,   emotional,   and  practical.     Do   any 
of  the  cases  overlap? 


TEACHING  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  145 

3.  Study  your  own  imagery  to  see  whether  you  are  an 
audile,  a  visualizer,  or  a  motile. 

4.  The  women  of  the  University  of  Missouri  have  been 
found,  for  the  last  three  years,  to  lead  the  men  in  ranking 
in  scholarship.    How  do  you  account  for  this  difference? 

5.  Study  a  boy  or  girl  of  your  acquaintance  and  deter- 
mine to  which  instincts  you  could  best  appeal.     Check  up 
your  investigation  by  determining  whether  it  would  be  prac- 
ticable and  wise  to  do  so.    Avoid  a  superficial  observation  of 
some  one  instinct. 

6.  If  you   discard   desks   "made   for  listening,"  what 
sort  of  practicable  furniture  would  you  substitute? 

7.  What  form  does  constructiveness  take  in  the  high 
school  ? 

8.  Can  the  social  instinct  be  used  in  high  school  classes 
with  advantage  ?    Illustrate  your  answer  pro  or  con. 

9.  Give  instances  within  your  own  experience  of  good 
group  work  in  the  grade,  of  group  work  that  was  a  fail- 
ure, and  state  the  essential  differences  between  the  cases 
that  caused  success  or  failure. 

10.  Criticize  the  culture  epoch  course  of  study  given  in 
the  table  and  that  referred  to  in  Bolton. 

11.  Give  five  instances  of  failure  in  handling  pupils  be- 
cause of  failure  to  understand  them. 

12.  What  advantage  in  handling  boys  has  the  teacher 
who,  as  a  girl,  was  a  torn-boy? 


CHAPTER   IX 

MOTIVE 

SECTION  i.     INTEREST 

Definition  of  Motive. — The  problems  of  teaching  are 
discussed  in  cycles.  Twenty  years  ago  drill  was  the  favorite 
topic  of  discussion,  ten  years  ago  we  were  studying  the 
developing  method  and  interest,  today  the  current  theme 
is  motivation. 

Motivation,  however,  is  a  full  brother  to  interest.  But  it 
is  not  identical  with  this  subject  because  it  involves  new 
elements  in  the  situation,  the  need  and  the  problem.  Where 
formerly  we  asked,  How  does  interest  work  in  education? 
we  now  ask  in  addition,  What  effect  has  a  feeling  of  need 
upon  learning?  and,  What  is  the  use  of  the  problem  in 
teaching?  Interest,  need  and  problem  are  all  forms  of 
motive. 

The  term  "motive"  is  best  defined  by  its  generic  meaning. 
It  is  derived  from  the  Latin  verb  moveo,  motum,  and  means 
that  which  moves  one.  A  motive,  then,  is  something  which 
moves  one  to  action.  It  is,  as  Dewey  incidentally  remarks, 
a  motor.  It  is  something  that  drives,  impels,  forces,  and 
incites  the  individual  to  perform  action. 

The  problem  of  this  and  succeeding  chapters  is,  in  brief, 
that  of  describing  these  various  forms  of  motive  (interest, 
need,  and  problem)  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  how  they 
arise  and  operate. 

Interest  and  Values. — The  pupil  is  constantly  attempt- 

146 


MOTIVE  147 

ing  to  control  values.  If  he  builds  a  kite  to  fly,  if  he  works 
arithmetic  in  order  to  finish  it,  if  he  reads  a  story  to  see 
what  happens  to  the  hero,  he  is  trying  to  control  values. 

In  controlling  these  values  the  pupil  utilizes  his  own 
activity.  In  fact,  he  may  be  said  to  be  a  bundle  of  activi- 
ties. Formerly  we  thought  of  him  as  a  granary  in  which 
were  stored  up  grains  of  facts,  or  as  a  pitcher  made  to 
hold  water  or  dust  and  cobwebs.  But  the  modern  concep- 
tion considers  the  pupil,  not  as  a  receptacle,  but  as  a  living, 
moving,  active  organism.  He  is  always  doing  something, 
either  with  his  hands  or  his  mind.  Thinking,  feeling,  willing 
are  all  forms  of  his  activity.  He  has  moral,  social,  physical, 
aesthetic  activity,  and  the  result  is  always  development. 
The  pupil  is  never  inactive  because  for  him  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  inaction.  That  which  is  called  inaction  is 
action  not  along  the  line  some  one  else  wants.  The  inactive 
pupil  in  the  schoolroom  is  actively  engaged  in  some  line  of 
thought;  we  call  him  inactive  because  he  is  not  interestedly 
engaged  in  the  lesson  of  the  moment. 

This  activity  which  is  the  all-in-all  of  the  pupil  has  cer- 
tain predilections  to  and  predispositions  toward  the  direction 
it  takes.  Generally  it  likes  to  play  a  game;  frequently  it 
hates  to  hold  a  hoe  handle  and  chop  weeds.  Sometimes  in 
one  pupil  it  likes  to  work  arithmetic ;  in  another  this  may 
be  disliked.  In  other  words,  the  pupil  has  biases.  Some 
of  these  are  born  with  him,  are  instinctive  and  innate.  He 
is  instinctively  interested  in  games,  in  making  things,  and 
in  being  with  other  people,  but  the  vast  majority  of  his  pre- 
dilections are  acquired.  We  call  these  predilections  or  pre- 
dispositions interests. 

Characteristics  of  Interest. — Interest  has  in  the  first 
place  feeling.  It  has  the  feeling  that  accompanies  absorp- 
tion. It  is  a  feeling  of  worth.  As  Dewey  says,  "The  root 


I48  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

idea  of  the  term  [interest]  seems  to  be  that  of  being  engaged, 
engrossed,  or  entirely  taken  up  with  some  activity  because 
of  its  recognized  worth."1 

-  This  feeling  is  probably  always  pleasurable.  Deep  en- 
grossment in  any  activity,  as,  for  example,  in  building  a 
box,  in  playing  a  game  of  whist,  or  in  reading  a  fascinating 
story,  is  always  pleasurably  toned.2  Titehener  lays  stress 
upon  the  fact  that  interest  is  a  feeling  when  he  defines  it 
as  the  feeling  side  of  attention. 

In  the  second  place,  interest  is  dynamic.  This  is  at  once 
clear  since  an  interest  is  the  feeling  toward  a  particular  form 
of  activity — that  toward  which  we  are  predisposed.  If  a 
pupil  is  interested  he  tries  to  accomplish  the  valued  plan, 
he  attempts  to  possess  the  desired  object,  and  endeavors  to 
make  the  coveted  article.  Interest  is  a  motor,  collecting  his 
activity  and  converting  it  into  power  which  turns  the  wheels 
of  his  mind  and  materializes  the  patterns  designed.  If  the 
motor  fails  to  work,  all  the  power  stored  in  the  reservoirs 
of  his  experience  are  absolutely  incapable  of  turning  a  wheel. 

In  the  third  place,  interest  always  has  an  object.    That  is, 

1  Dewey,  Interest  in  Relation  to  Will,  p.  13. 

2  Even  in  such  a  case  as  interest  in  an  aching  tooth  the  same  is 
true.    There  are  thrusts  of  pain,  and  efforts  to  use  a  cure  all,  haste 
to  reach  the  dentist,  observation  of  his  deliberate  selection  of  forceps, 
the  pressure  of  the  steel  under  the  gums,  the  laceration,  the  fiendish 
probings  and  the  final  crunch  and  twist.     In  such  a  case  it  would 
seem   that    interest   could   not   be   pleasurably   toned.     Yet    in   this 
extensive    series    of   actions    which    take   a    long   time   and    which, 
looked  upon  as  a  whole,  is  anything  but  pleasant,  what  we  really 
have  is  a  series  of  situations  in  which  we  actually  feel  interest  and 
interspersed    among   a   series   in    which    we    feel   pain    rather   than 
interest.    We  feel  the  throb  of  pain,  we  get  interested  in  locating  it 
and  forget  the  pain  for  a  second.     In  this  locating  there  is  satis- 
faction, again  comes  the  throb,  and  a  rush  for  the  liniment,  in  which 
some   satisfaction   follows  the  pain.     The  point  is  that   interest  is 
staccato  in  this  case  and  that  we  must  not  confuse  the  unpleasant 
total  with  the  intermittent  neutral  overtones  of  interest,  which  are 
forgotten  when  we  think  about  the  whole  experience. 


MOTIVE  149 

we  are  interested  always  in  something.  The  activity  of  the 
pupil  is  going  some  where,  is  directed  at  some  object.  Often 
it  is  misdirected.  Sometimes  a  group  of  children  will  bob 
up  and  down  in  their  seats,  wildly  waving  the  right  hand, 
snapping  fingers,  then  alternating  to  the  left  hand  still 
wildly  snapping  while  the  teacher  is  leading  in  the  excite- 
ment. The  observer  as  he  watches  the  lesson  progress  may 
feel  that  there  is  great  interest.  Another  more  cynical  ob- 
server may  say  that  it  is  interest  directed  at  nothing  because 
the  class  is  getting  nowhere.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  second 
observer  may  be  right  in  saying  that  the  class  is  getting 
nowhere,  for  the  interest  of  the  class  has  run  amuck.  But 
in  running  amuck  they  run  somewhere.  They  are  inter- 
ested in  each  question  of  the  teacher,  in  snapping  their 
fingers,  in  keeping  a  "correct"  position  in  spite  of  snapping 
digits.  The  only  trouble  is  that  these  objects  of  interest 
are  not  organized.  They  are  in  confusion  because  they 
have  no  leader  to  help  them  get  interested  in  things  which 
are  connected  in  such  a  way  that,  when  the  lesson  is  over, 
a  definite  step  forward  will  have  been  made. 

Degrees  of  Interest. — Interest,  like  values,  (p.  18)  dif- 
fers in  intensity.  It  may  be  very  mild.  In  eating  three 
meals  a  day  some  people  have  enough  interest  to  eat  them, 
but  little  beyond.  Most  matters  of  routine  evoke  only  this 
mild  sort  of  interest,  and  probably  ninety  per  cent  of  an 
average  adult's  time  is  spent  in  doing  things  of  minimal 
interest.  Children,  however,  put  more  intensity  into  a 
larger  percentage  of  their  time  and  some  people  put  more 
interest  into  everything  they  do  than  do  others.  It  is  a  case 
of  the  intense  versus  the  neutral  temperament. 

On  the  other  hand,  interest  may  be  very  intense.  The 
absent-minded  person  is  one  who  is  so  intensely  interested 
in  what  he  does  that  he  is  unable  to  pay  attention  to  anything 


150  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

else.  "The  artist  is  the  man  above  all  others  to  whom 
routine  is  utterly  delightful,  not  because  it  is  easy,  not  be- 
cause it  fosters  the  caprices  of  his  indolence,  but  because 
it  calls  into  action  the  very  best  of  the  man  himself." 
Children  display  a  like  abandon  in  things  which  interest. 
Many  a  boy  will  spend  hours  working  earnestly  upon  a 
tricky  problem  in  algebra,  or  upon  the  construction  of  a 
sled,  in  teaching  his  dog  a  trick,  or  in  reading  a  tale  of 
blood  and  fury. 

Between  these  two  extremes  lie  all  degrees  of  interest. 
But,  as  Bolton,  remarks,1  "the  greater  the  amount  of  inter- 
est the  better.  No  one  ever  accomplished  much  in  any 
direction  until  he  gave  himself  to  his  task  body  and  soul. 
The  scriptural  injunctions  'Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to 
do,  do  it  with  thy  might'  and  'Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy 
God  with  all  thy  heart,  arid  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all 
thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy  strength/  etc.,  contain  the  key 
to  the  secret  of  success.  It  is  not  advocated  here  that  work 
should  be  made  disagreeable.  Even  though  a  given  occupa- 
tion may  seem  dreary,  exhausting,  irksome,  the  whole  of 
which  this  unit  is  a  part,  should  be  of  absorbing  interest. 
The  end  to  be  attained  should  be  so  alluring  that  no  amount 
of  disagreeableness  could  drive  us  away." 

Kinds  of  Interest. — There  are  several  classifications 
of  interest.  James  gives  two  kinds — native  and  acquired. 
He  says:2  "Now,  some  situations  appeal  to  special  instincts 
from  the  very  outset,  and  others  fail  to  do  so  until  the 
proper  connections  have  been  organized  in  the  course  of  the 
person's  training.  We  say  of  the  former  set  of  objects  or 
situations  that  they  are  interesting  in  themselves  and  orig- 

1  Bolton,  Principles  of  Education,  p.  673. 

2  James,  Talks  to  Teachers,  tv  91 


MOTIVE  151 

inally.  Of  the  latter  we  say  that  they  are  natively  unin- 
teresting, and  that  interest  in  them  has  first  to  be  acquired." 

McMurry  gives  two — direct  and  indirect.  He  says  :l  "It 
is  customary  also  to  speak  of  direct  and  indirect  interest ;  by 
the  former  being  meant  the  real  thing,  by  the  latter  a  reflec- 
tion or  borrowed  light.  Direct  interest  is  felt  in  the  thing 
itself  for  its  own  sake  and  indirect  interest  points  to  some- 
thing else  as  the  real  source.  A  miser  loves  gold  coins  for 
their  own  sake,  but  most  people  love  them  only  because  of 
the  things  for  which  they  may  be  exchanged." 

Dewey  and  others  classify  interest  as  immediate  and  me- 
diate. Dewey  says  :2  "There  are  cases  where  self-expression 
is  direct  and  immediate.  It  puts  itself  forth  with  no  thought 
of  anything  beyond.  The  present  activity  is  the  only  ulti- 
mate in  consciousness.  It  satisfies  in  and  of  itself.  The  end 
is  the  present  activity,  and  so  there  is  no  gap  in  space  nor 
time  between  means  and  end.  All  play  is  of  this  immediate 
character.  All  purely  aesthetic  appreciation  approximates 
this  type.  The  existing  experience  holds  us  for  its  own 
sake,  and  we  do  not  demand  of  it  that  it  take  us  into  some- 
thing beyond  itself.  With  the  child  and  his  ball,  the  amateur 
and  the  hearing  of  a  symphony,  the  immediate  engrosses. 
Its  value  is  there,  and  is  there  in  what  is  directly 
present.  *  *  * 

"On  the  other  hand,  we  have  cases  of  indirect,  transferred, 
or,  technically,  mediated  interest.  That  is,  things  indiffer- 
ent, or  even  repulsive  in  themselves,  often  become  of  interest 
because  of  their  assuming  relationships  and  connections  of 
which  we  are  previously  unaware.  Many  a  student,  of  so- 
called  practical  make-up,  has  found  mathematical  theory, 

1  McMurry,  Elements  of  General  Method,  pp.  88-9. 

2  Dewey,  Interest  as  Related  to   Will,  pp.   15-16. 


152  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

once  repellent,  lit  up  by  great  attractiveness  when  he  studied 
some  form  of  engineering  in  which  this  theory  was  a  neces- 
sary tool.  The  musical  score  and  the  technique  of  finger- 
ing, in  which  the  child  can  find  no  interest  when  it  is  pre- 
sented as  an  end  in  itself,  when  it  is  isolated,  becomes  fasci- 
nating when  the  child  realizes  its  place  and  bearings  in  help- 
ing him  give  better  and  fuller  utterance  to  his  love  of  song." 

Dewey's  and  McMurry's  classification  involve  the  same 
facts  with  different  names.  Immediate  interest  would  in- 
clude all  of  James'  native  and  some  of  the  acquired.  In  the 
text  we  shall  use  the  terms  immediate  and  mediate  meaning 
by  immediate  interest  that  interest  found  in  activity  that  is 
of  value  in  itself,  and  by  mediate  interest  that  which  accom- 
panies activity  carried  on  solely  because  it  will  give  control 
of  some  other  value. 

What  Is  of  Immediate  Interest? — If  a  teacher  could 
tell  in  advance  what  is  of  immediate  interest  to  children  he 
would  have  his  problems  of  motive  three-fourths  solved. 
But,  as  Angell  says,  "in  the  main  we  cannot  say  in  advance 
of  the  actual  test  with  each  individual  whether  an  object 
will  call  out  an  emotion  or  not.  The  peculiarities  of  personal 
constitution,  the  vicissitudes  of  personal  history,  the  reigning 
mood — these  and  a  thousand  other  factors  may  all  enter  in 
to  modify  the  reaction."1 

There  are,  however,  a  number  of  classes  of  objects  which 
are  likely  to  be  of  immediate  interest.    They  may  not  prove 
interesting  but  the  chances  are  in  their  favor, 
(i)  Objects  and  situations  that  call  for  the  instinctive  ac- 
tions   are    usually    immediately    interesting.      Playing, 
making  objects,  such  as  mud-pies  and  sand-heaps,  run- 
ning machinery,  and  eating,  evoke  the  spontaneous  in- 

1  Angell,  Psychology,  pp.  421-2. 


MOTIVE  153 

terest  of  children  of  one  age  or  another.     Elaboration 
is  not  necessary. 

(2)  Moving  objects  usually  attract  the  attention  spontane- 
ously.   Throughout  the  history  of  the  race  these  mov- 
ing objects — the  leap  of  an  animal,  the  movement  of  an 
enemy — have  had  such  a  close  bearing  upon  life  that 
the  tendency  to  watch  and  become  absorbed  in  them  is 
strong. 

(3)  The  concrete  and  objective  is  more  likely  to  be  of  imme- 
diate interest  to  children  because  probably  so  much  can 
be  done  with  them.    At  any  rate  those  concrete  objects 
which  are  used  take  on  a  value  and  interest  of  their  own. 

(4)  Among  concrete  objects,  those  that  appeal  to  the  senses 
evoke  spontaneous  interest   from  children,  bright  pic- 
tures, loud  noises,  jingles,  smooth  objects,  action  songs, 
usually  appeal  at  once.    "Novel  things  to  look  at  or  rare 
sounds  to  hear,  especially  when  they  involve  the  spec- 
tacle of  an  action  of  a  violent  sort,  will  always  attract 
the    attention    from    abstract    conceptions    of    objects 
verbally  taken  in.    The  grimace  that  Johnny  is  making, 
Vie  spit-ball  that  Tommy  is  ready  to  throw,  the  dog- 
fight in  the  street,  or  the  distant  fire-bells  ringing — 
these  are  the  rivals  with  which  the  teacher's  powers  of 
being  interesting  have  incessantly  to  cope." 

(5)  The  new,  if  it  is  in  line  with  the  immediate  interests  of 
the  children,  is  likely  to  evoke  that  interest.     A  new 
problem  in  arithmetic,  a  new  doll,  a  new  dress,  a  new 
reading  lesson — will  all  be  of  immediate  interest  if  the 
children  are  interested  in  those  sorts  of  things.    If  they 
are  not,  the  new  object  will  call  forth  no  spontaneous 
interest. 

(6)  Familiar    situations   evoke   immediate   interest,    some- 
times, when  absences  have  occurred.     But  in  the  main, 


I54  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

familiarity  is  less  likely  to  elicit  interest  than  is  novelty. 
Children  sometimes  love  old  stories  best  but  not  often 
and  then  only  because  the  sensations  accompanying  the 
recital  are  forgotten  and  the  story  comes  as  a  new 
one  and  because  they  would  rather  have  a  good  old 
story  than  run  the  chances  of  a  poor  new  one. 
However,  as  stated  above,  while  these  different  classes 

of  things  run  a  good  chance  of  evoking  immediate  interest, 

there  is  no  guarantee  that  they  will  do  so. 

SECTION  2.    CONDITIONS  GIVING  RISE  TO  MEDIATE  INTEREST 

In  school  as  in  life,  there  are  a  vast  number  of  objects  and 
situations  which  in  themselves  are  of  no  interest  but  which 
under  other  conditions  secure  a  borrowed  interest  in  them- 
selves. This  transfer  is  of  prime  importance  and  it  is  our 
purpose  to  examine  into  the  nature  of  these  conditions. 

No  definite  statement  of  methods  is  given.  James  says  i1 
"Any  object  not  interesting  in  itself  may  become  interesting 
through  becoming  associated  with  an  object  in  which  an 
interest  already  exists.  *  *  *  An  idea  will  infect 
another  with  its  own  emotional  interest  when  they  have  be- 
come both  associated  together  into  any  sort  of  a  mental 
total.  *  *  *  Associate  the  new  [objects]  with  the  old 
[objects  of  interest]  in  some  natural  and  telling  way,  so  that 
the  interest,  being  shed  along  from  point  to  point,  finally 
suffuses  the  entire  system  of  objects  of  thought.  This  is  the 
abstract  statement;  and,  abstractly,  nothing  can  be  easier 
to  understand.  It  is  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  rule  that  the 
difficulty  lies;  for  the  difference  between  an  interesting  and 
a  tedious  teacher  consists  in  little  more  than  the  inventive- 
ness by  which  the  one  is  able  to  mediate  these  associations 

i  Op.  cit.,  pp.  94,  96, 


MOTIVE  155 

and  connections,  and  in  the  dulness  in  discovering  such  tran- 
sitions which  the  other  shows." 

The  method  here  may  be  summed  up  in  a  sentence : 
Associate  new  objects  with  old  objects  of  interest  in  a  natural 
and  telling  way.  But  the  question  the  teacher  needs  to 
know  is  how  to  associate  in  a  natural  and  telling  way. 

McMurry  has  a  statement  similar  to  James,  when  he  says  i1 
"There  are  many  facts  in  each  branch  of  study  which,  .in 
themselves,  excite  little  or  no  interest,  just  as  there  are  many 
details  in  a  man's  business  which,  in  themselves,  are  only 
tedious.  All  of  these  facts  may  acquire  a  secondary  inter- 
est by  close  association  with  interesting  things  with  which 
they  are  brought  into  relation." 

However,  this  latter  author  lays  his  chief  emphasis  upon 
direct  or  immediate  interest  and  so  has  little  concern  in 
working  out  the  methods  of  securing  mediate  interest.  This 
seems  to  be  the  case  from  a  foregoing  quotation  which 
gives  a  fair  view  of  his  attitude  as  stated  in  The  Elements 
of  General  Method.  "It  is  customary  also  to  speak  of 
direct  and  indirect  interest;  by  the  former  being  meant  the 
real  thing,  by  the  latter,  a  reflection  or  borrowed  light 
(p.  88)."  He  says  that  these  indirect  interests  need  to  be 
carefully  scrutinized  by  the  teacher  because  "they  often 
serve  as  a  blind  to  conceal  most  hateful  qualities  in  the 
development  of  character."  He  adds  they  are  "vital  to  suc- 
cess only  when  they  follow  in  the  path  of  strong  and  genu- 
ine interests."  Finally,  "the  kind  of  interest  which  we 
think  is  so  valuable  for  instruction  is  direct  and  intrinsic. 
It  reaches  down  into  those  spontaneous  and  instinctive  forces 
in  child  life  out  of  which  all  strong  activity  must  spring." 
(p.  92.) 

It  seems  to  the  writer  that  the  storm  of  criticism  that 
1  Elements  of  General  Method,  p.  91. 


156  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

has  assailed  the  doctrine  of  interest  set  forth  by  the  Her- 
bartians  is  chiefly  caused  by  the  tendency  to  underemphasize 
the  place  of  mediate  interest. 

Dewey  says:  "In  reality  the  principle  of  'making  things 
interesting'  means  that  subjects  shall  be  selected  in  relation 
to  the  child's  present  experience,  powers  and  needs;  and 
that  (in  case  he  does  not  perceive  cr  appreciate  the  rele- 
vancy) the  teacher  shall  present  the  new  material  in  such  a 
way  as  to  enable  the  child  to  appreciate  its  bearings,  its 
relationships,  its  necessity  for  him." 

Ruediger  uses  another  term1  which  is  not  analyzed.  He 
says,  following  James :  "The  pedagogical  principle  involved 
may  be  stated  as  follows :  Begin  with  a  native  interest,  or 
an  interest  already  acquired,  and  graft  upon  it  the  new  thing 
you  wish  to  teach.  If  this  is  skillfully  done,  the  original 
interest  will  radiate  to  the  new  thing  taught,  but  it  requires 
native  skill,  tact,  as  well  as  psychological  knowledge,  to  apply 
the  principle."  Here  the  method  is  to  graft  the  one  on  the 
other,  but  the  method  is  left  to  the  native  skill  and  psycho- 
logical knowledge 'of  the  teacher. 

REFERENCES    FOR    CLASS    READING 
Bolton.     Principles  of  Education,     pp.  672-674. 
Dewey.     Interest  as  Related  to  Will.    pp.  12-18. 
James.     Talks  to  Teachers,    pp.  91-99. 
McMurry.    Elements  of  General  Method,    pp.  84-93. 
Thorndike.    Principles  of  Teaching,    pp.  51-59. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Name  a  half-dozen  phrases  used  in  education  which 
imply  that  the  pupil  is  a  receptacle. 

2.  Give   five   cases   in  which   superficial   inaction  was 
really  intense  activity  along  other  lines. 

1  Ruediger,  The  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  20-4-5. 


MOTIVE  157 

3.  Give  five  examples  of  where  children  do  difficult 
things  because  of  interest  in  them. 

4.  Does  it  do  any  good  to  have  pupils  perform  tasks 
that  have  little  interest  for  them?    In  answering  this  ques- 
tion name  five  such  tasks  as  examples  about  which  to  discuss 
the  questions. 

5.  What  is  the  value  to  teaching  of  the  fact  that  interest 
may  be  attached  to  objects? 

6.  Give  five   cases   of   great   superficial   interest   in   a 
schoolroom  where  there  was  little  interest  in  the  problem  of 
the  lesson. 

7.  Give  two  personal  instances  of  the  greatest  interest 
you  have  ever  felt  in  any  situation. 

8.  Give  five  examples  of  minimal  interest. 

9.  Is  it  your   observation   that   adults   have  more   or 
less  intensity  of  interest  than  children?    In  everything?    In 
particular  things?    Which  is  the  longer  sustained? 

10.  Name  ten  things  that  are  of  immediate  interest  to 
you. 

11.  Name  ten  that  would  have  no  interest  were  it  not 
that  they  are  of  use  to  you.    To  what  use  do  you  put  each  ? 

12.  Give  five  cases  in  which  moving  objects  are  not  of 
interest.     Is  it  true  in  your  case  that  they  usually  are? 


CHAPTER    X 

MOTIVE—  (Continued) 

SECTION  i.     NEED 

Specific  Examples. — When  we  come  to  consider  the 
method  by  which  the  connection  is  made  between  the  imme- 
diate interests  and  objects  without  immediate  interest,  and 
investigate  the  method  of  securing  this  derived  interest,  the 
point  of  view  elaborated  earlier  in  the  text  will  assist.  And 
a  few  illustrations  from  practical  life  will  serve  to  intro- 
duce the  method. 

A  life  insurance  agent  tried  for  two  years  to  interest  a 
"prospect"  in  a  policy  and  uniformly  failed.  Then  the 
man  married.  He  sought  out  the  agent  and  bought  a 
policy. 

I  once  had  a  private  pupil  sixteen  years  old  whom  I 
tried  to  get  interested  in  blacking  his  shoes  and  combing  his 
hair,  but  without  success.  One  day,  a  month  after  I  ceased 
my  ministrations  upon  his  personal  appearance,  I  saw  him 
on  the  street  with  not  only  his  hair  combed  and  shoes  shined, 
but  with  his  trousers  pressed.  I  tactfully  inquired  about 
the  transformation  and  found  that  he  had  in  the  meantime 
met  the  lady  of  his  choice  who  had  spoken  to  him  about 
the  matter. 

The  wealthiest  correspondence  school  in  the  country  en- 
rolls men  who,  while  in  the  public  schools,  had  no  interest 
in  the  subjects  for  instruction  in  which  they  now  pay  large 
fees. 


MOTIVE  159 

Tommy,  playing  with  the  boys,  is  called  home  by  his 
father,  but  shows  no  interest.  The  father  says,  "Tommy,  if 
you  don't  come  home,  you  will  get  no  supper."  He  be- 
comes interested  at  once. 

Analysis  of  Need. — In  these  cases,  mediate  interest 
comes  because  first  the  individuals  recognized  some  value — 
the  young  husband  wished  to  protect  his  wife,  the  youth 
to  please  his  sweetheart,  the  students  to  succeed  in  their 
chosen  work,  and  Tommy  to  eat  a  square  meal.  These 
were,  in  each  case,  things  of  immediate  interest.  Second, 
they  recognized  that  they  did  not  have  control  of  these 
values.  The  husband  had  no  protection  for  his  wife,  the 
youth's  sweetheart  had  spoken  disparagingly  of  his  personal 
appearance,  the  students  felt  their  lack  of  knowledge  and 
training,  and  Tommy  believed  his  father  when  he  threatened 
Third,  they  realized  that  the  way  to  control  values  was  to 
do  this  thing  in  which  they  had  not  previously  been  inter- 
ested. The  husband  bought  the  policy,  the  youth  brushed 
up,  the  students  took  the  courses,  and  Tommy  hurried  home. 

This  reason  for  becoming  interested  is  called  need.  It  is 
essentially  a  recognition  of  inability  to  control  something  of 
•value.  In  the  remainder  of  the  section  the  concept  will  be 
analyzed.  But  before  doing  so,  the  different  methods  of 
securing  mediate  interest  will  be  summarized. 

1.  Associate  the  hitherto  uninteresting  object  with  an 
object  of  immediate  interest. 

2.  Make  this  association  in  a  natural  and  telling  way 

(James),  with  native  skill  and  psychological  infor- 
mation (Ruediger),  by  showing  its  relevancy  to  the 
child's  experience,  powers,  and  needs. 

3.  Create  a  need   for  the  new  object  by   making   the 
child  appreciate  his  inability  to  control  some  value 
of  immediate  interest.    Make  him  aware  of  his  short- 


160  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

comings,  place  him  in  such  a  position  that  he  realizes 
his  difficulties,  his  errors,  and  his  troubles. 

Other  Illustrations. — Need  has  a  much  wider  applica- 
tion than  that  of  being  a  means  of  securing  mediate  interest. 
It  is  a  fundamental  concept  in  the  handling  of  all  processes 
of  human  life  from  a  functional  point  of  view. 

For  instance,  we  remain  unconscious  of  objects  until 
habit  breaks  down.  As  Angell  says:1  "An  expert  can  use 
a  typewriting  machine  almost  without  any  conscious  guid- 
ance of  the  movements  which  are  necessary  to  operate  it. 
He  has  acquired  by  long  practice  a  set  of  habits  whereby 
he  manipulates  the  keys.  These  habits  involve,  among 
other  things,  co-ordinating  the  movements  of  the  hand  with 
movements  of  the  eyes,  the  latter  movements  being  in  part 
reflex;  e.  g.,  accommodation  of  the  lens.  As  the  writer 
proceeds,  his  mind  may  be  entirely  absorbed  in  the  meaning 
of  the  sentences  which  he  is  composing.  But  if  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  typewriter  becomes  clogged,  the  operator  must 
at  once  direct  his  attention  to  the  machine,  abandoning  all 
thought  of  the  composition.  His  automatised  writing  habits 
are  powerless  to  deal  with  such  a  difficulty  and  they  must 
consequently  give  way  to  conscious  control  processes." 

Take  another  illustration  given  in  psychology.  Miller 
says  :2  "Judgment  is  called  forth  under  conditions  of  doubt 
or  uncertainty  of  some  sort  which  interferes  with  reaction, 
mental  or  motor.  It  is  then  necessary  for  us  to  raise  the 
question,  'What  is  this?'  We  have  to  evaluate  the  situa- 
tion, etc." 

All  forms  of  religion  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  origi- 
nators of  each  form  were  dissatisfied  with  the  existing 
methods  of  controlling  religious  values.  Jesus,  Luther, 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  63. 

2  Miller,  The  Psychology  of  Thinking,  p.  277. 


MOTIVE  l6l 

Knox,  Wesley,  Swedenborg,  come  easily  to  mind.  Each 
was  dissatisfied  and  built  up  a  new  religion  or  the  modifica- 
tion of  an  old  religion. 

All  forms  of  government  had  their  origin  in  dissatisfac- 
tion with  older  forms.  They  are  organized  protests,  which 
have  taken  on  mutual  form.  Limited  monarchy,  repub- 
licanism, democracy^,  began  in  discontent.  Even  an  abso- 
lute monarchy  had  its  rise  in  the  dissatisfaction  w^ith  earlier 
unorganized  and  futile  attempts  at  protection. 

Arithmetical  forms  each  rose  because  earlier  methods  of 
computing  were  unsatisfactory.  Multiplication  is  used  in- 
stead of  addition  because  addition  is  too  slow,  division  be- 
cause subtraction  is  slow,  decimals  because  common  frac- 
tions are  too  cumbersome. 

Every  new  machine  is  conceived  in  disability  and  born 
in  dissatisfaction.  The  inventor  finds  something  that  does 
not  work  right.  The  telegraph  is  born  of  slow  communi- 
cation by  post,  wireless  telegraphy  by  the  cumbersomeness, 
expense,  and  inability  of  the  older  form.  Gas  is  used  for 
cooking  because  coal  is  heavy  and  dirty,  and  electricity  for 
lighting  because  gas  has  an  odor  and  is  expensive. 

In  fact  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  principle,  that 
every  new  activity  participated  in  by  man  is  born  of  some 
need,  of  some  inability  to  do  what  he  wants  to  do.  It  is 
the  universal  spur  to  action. 

Hence  it  is  clear  that,  if  a  pupil  is  to  secure  mediate  inter- 
est in  objects,  an  excellent  method  lies  at  hand  in  the  need. 
Get  him  to  recognize  that  he  cannot  control  a  value  and  as 
naturally  as  the  plant  turns  to  the  sun,  and  the  magnetic 
needle  to  the  pole,  his  interest  will  turn  to  the  means  of 
control.  It  is  a  law  of  human  nature. 

Characteristics  of  Need. — Need,  like  interest,  has 
three  characteristics:  First,  it  is  a  feeling.  But  unlike 


162  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

interest  it  is  usually  disagreeably  toned  because  its  object 
is  a  breakdown  in  something  we  want  to  do,  a  doubt  about 
a  cherished  object,  a  failure  to  accomplish,  a  mistake  in 
plans  of  action.  These  are  unpleasant  things  to  contem- 
plate. 

Second,  it  is  dynamic.  It,  like  interest,  is  a  motor,  all  the 
stronger  because  activity  is  held  up,  impeded,  by  an  obstacle, 
and  it  is  a  law  of  life  that  nothing  shall  forever  stand  in  the 
way  of  man's  desires.  When  the  obstacle  is  met,  he  works 
the  harder. 

Third,  it  has  an  object.  It  has  some  idea  within  it — and 
the  object  on  which  attention  centers  is  this  obstacle,  mis- 
take, dissatisfaction,  breakdown,  or  disability. 

Is  Need  Always  Present? — The  question  arises,  Do  we 
feel  a  need  for  everything  we  do?  Do  we  feel  that  what 
we  are  now  doing  is  not  satisfactory  before  we  do  something 
else? 

A  woman  sees  a  hat  in  a  window  and  buys  it.  Did  she 
feel  that  her  old  hat  was  not  satisfactory  ?  A  philanthropist 
gives  a  beggar  a  dime.  Did  he  argue  that  if  he  walked  on 
he  would  feel  ashamed  of  himself?  A  traveler  tips  a  waiter. 
Did  he  think  that  if  he  did  not  give  it  he  might  appear 
small?  A  mother  snatches  her  child  from  under  an  auto- 
mobile. Did  she  think  how  grieved  she  would  feel  if  she 
stood  still  and  allowed  the  child  to  be  injured?  A  pupil 
builds  a  wagon.  Did  he  build  it  because  he  realized  the 
unpleasantness  of  playing  without  one?  He  may  or  may 
not  have  done  so,  the  need  is  present,  but  it  may  be  either 
implied  or  felt.  The  woman  who  bought  the  hat  may  have 
thought  that  her  old  hats  were  out  of  date,  or  at  least  failed 
to  impress  Mrs.  Grundy.  The  philanthropist  may  have 
felt  ashamed  of  going  on.  Tips  are  usually  given  because 
a  man  does  not  wish  to  appear  cheap.  The  mother  may  have 


MOTIVE  163 

had  rushing  visions  of  a  mangled  child,  and  the  boy  may 
have  wanted  a  wagon  for  months.  They  may  all  have  felt 
the  need. 

Or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sight  of  the  hat  may  have  been 
so  compelling  that  the  woman  skipped  the  intervening  need. 
She  may  not  have  thought  of  her  present  sad  condition. 
The  sight  of  the  beggar  may  have  made  the  philanthropist 
put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  and  give  the  dime.  The  boy 
may  have  seen  a  wagon  and  said,  "I  am  going  to  have  one 
like  that."  But  if  they  had  stopped  to  think  before  acting, 
each  could  have  found  a  need,  a  disability  and  dis- 
satisfaction. 

Needs  are  then  present  potentially  and  implicitly  or  they 
may  be  felt.  But  if  you  find  a  man  reluctant  to  do  what 
you  want,  make  him  see  that  something  he  wants  cannot  be 
done  till  he  does  what  you  want,  and  if  he  wants  his  badly 
enough  he  will  do  yours. 

Value  of  the  Conception  of  Need  in  Education. — First, 
it  lays  stress  upon  the  consciousness  of  mistakes,  of  failure 
as  a  motive  for  action. 

At  once  objections  arise.  Some  pupils  are  already  too 
much  inclined  to  notice  their  own  mistakes.  To  be  sure, 
a  few  are — the  average  individual  is  not,  neither  boy  nor 
girl.  He  is,  on  the  whole,  too  easily  satisfied.  The  sensi- 
tive self-distrusting  pupil  needs  to  have  little  attention 
paid  to  him  by  the  teacher  to  make  him  conscious  of  his 
failures.  But  his  is  an  unusual  case — less  than  ten  per  cent 
of  the  cases. 

Again,  will  recognition  of  mistakes  and  failures  not  dis- 
courage pupils  ?  Not  necessarily  and  not  usually.  We  have 
seen  that  it  is  a  spur  to  action.  It  brings  discouragement 
only  when  there  is  a  recognition  of  two  facts — (i)  a  mistake 
or  difficulty,  and  (2)  no  known  way  out.  Now,  it  is  the 


164  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

business  of  the  school  to  provide  assistance  in  finding  ways 
out — that  is  the  function  of  school  management.  So  if  the 
school  is  doing  its  work,  if  the  teacher  is  helpful  and  opti- 
mistic, there  need  be  no  discouragement  and  will  be  none. 

Will  this  not  make  the  teacher  a  scold?  Not  necessarily 
or  likely.  For  if  the  method  is  worked  properly — like,  for 
instance,  Spencer  handles  moral  education  through  natural 
consequences  of  error,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  fun  in  standing 
back  and  seeing  a  boy  go  through  error  to  the  point  where 
he  is  shocked  by  his  absurdity.  Then,  again,  even  where 
the  teacher  points  out  errors,  he  will  become  crabbed  only 
when  he  is  unsympathetic.  If  he  is  showing  error  with  good 
will  just  because  he  wants  the  pupil  to  correct  himself, 
there  is  no  danger. 

The  plan  of  appealing  largely  to  immediate  interest  has 
a  predisposition  in  the  hands  of  the  average  teacher  to 
dress  subject-matter  up  in  attractive  sensuous  form  so  that 
a  superficial  interest  is  generated.  Spelling  is  learned  by 
picking  words  off  a  tree  on  the  board.  In  teaching  addi- 
tion objects  are  used  long  after  they  are  helpful.  This  is  a 
tendency  with  teachers  who  cannot  distinguish  between 
immediate  interests  that  should  be  appealed  to  and  those 
which  should  not.  So  in  the  case  of  need — the  thoughtless 
teacher  will  get  hold  of  the  idea  sufficiently  to  give  him 
justification  for  scolding  and  fault-finding.  But  there  is 
all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  fault-finding  and 
finding  faults.  If  the  teacher  is  sympathetic  and  finds  faults 
the  pupil  will  improve ;  if  he  is  a  fault-finder,  the  pupil  will 
get  a  distaste  for  school  work — not  because  the  teacher  finds 
faults  but  because  he  lacks  sympathy  and  good-fellowship. 

Second.  The  need  supplements  interest.  The  feeling 
about  interest  is  largely  that  school  work  should  be  made  as 
pleasant  as  possible.  That  is  how  it  works  out  in  practice. 


MOTIVE  165 

Noi  nuu'h  place  is  given  to  the  recognition  of  faults  and 
difficulties.  The  need  concept  gives  a  very  definite  place 
in  teaching  to  the  recognition  of  these  difficulties.  It  justi- 
fies the  teacher  in  not  only  making  the  work  as  pleasant  and 
interesting  as  practicable,  but  also  in  having  the  work  hard, 
and  in  using  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  difficulties  as  a  legiti- 
mate means  of  getting  interest. 

Third.  By  the  very  nature  of  the  need  the  pupil  is  bet- 
ter able  to  see  the  use  and  function  of  subject-matter.  For, 
in  feeling  a  need,  he  first  has  some  value  to  control ;  he  then 
sees  that  he  cannot  control  the  value,  and,  when  he  takes 
up  the  study  of  the  subject-matter  that  will  give  control,  he 
sees  at  once  its  use.  The  subject-matter  learned  under  the 
stress  of  need  cannot  be  isolated.  The  teacher  may  say, 
"Today  we  shall  study  these  ten  words  in  spelling,"  and 
the  pupils  will  probably  see  no  particular  use  for  knowing 
how  to  spell  them.  But  if  in  the  written  work  that  these 
pupils  are  doing  errors  are  found  and  the  words  are  given 
for  spelling,  some  use  is  seen;  they  have  failed  in  written 
work  because  of  these  words.  And  their  interest  in  telling 
accurately  what  they  know  will  make  them  feel  both  the  use 
and  the  need  of  studying  them. 

SECTION  2.    GENERIC  VALUES 

No  matter  what  teachers  think  they  can  do  or  ought  to  do, 
it  is  impossible  to  keep  activity  from  going  in  the  direction 
in  which  it  wants  to  go.  The  pupil  must  feel  some  value 
in  his  action,  because  if  he  does  not  he  cannot  do  it.  He 
may  hate  to  take  care  of  the  baby,  and  can  be  persuaded  to 
do  so  only  through  the  fear  of  incurring  tangible  parental 
displeasure.  But  the  fact  that  this  stimulus  makes  him  do 
it  means  that,  though  disliking  it  most  vigorously,  he  wants 
to  avoid  sad  consequences.  In  other  words,  he  performs 


166  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  hated  action  because  he  feels  the  value  of  doing  so.  And 
if  no  value  of  any  sort  could  be  seen  in  the  action,  if  he  did 
not  care  for  anything  else  in  the  world  that  could  be  con- 
nected with  this  action,  he  not  only  would  not,  but  could 
not  do  it. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  doing  work  in  which  one  is  not 
interested,  or  for  which  one  does  not  have  a  need,  implicit 
or  conscious.  Usually  it  is  said  that  pupils  have  no  interest 
in  that  which  they  are  compelled  to  do.  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  they  have  enough  interest — mediate  interest — to  do  it. 
The  thing  of  immediate  interest  to  them  is  to  avoid  punish- 
ment. A  pupil  may  have  no  interest  in  keeping  his  face 
clean.  The  teacher  may  lead  him  to  feel  that  by  this  he  is 
missing  the  teacher's  approbation.  If  the  boy  keeps  his  face 
cleaned  for  this  reason,  even  if  he  has  little  interest  in  it, 
he  has  enough  interest  to  make  him  do  it. 

Securing  interest  and  having  a  need  is  not,  then,  so  much 
a  matter  of  some  interest  versus  none,  as  it  is  a  choice 
between  good  interest  and  poor  interest.  A  pupil  studies 
grammar  to  make  the  best  grade  in  the  room,  to  please 
his  father,  to  avoid  detention,  or  to  learn  to  speak  correctly. 
A  pastor  preaches  to  make  a  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator, 
or  to  save  the  souls  of  sinners.  A  woman  cooks  to  create 
an  impression,  or  to  give  the  family  nourishing  food.  A 
girl  learns  a  geography  lesson  from  a  sense  of  duty,  or  be- 
cause it  gives  her  useful  information.  In  every  case  there  is 
a  need  and  interest;  but  the  values  which  these  things  help 
to  control  are  different. 

Generic  Values. — One  class  of  values  that  operates 
with  great  frequency  are  generic  values.  This  is  a  name 
given  to  those  values  which  can  be  used  in  a  great  variety 
of  situations  and  can  be  made  the  basis  of  motive  in  a  large 
field  of  activity.  Making  good  grades  may  apply  as  a  motive 


MOTIVE  167 

ill  every  subject  in  the  course  of  study.  Love  of  approba- 
tion is  a  motive  that  makes  some  children  work  at  every- 
thing. Avoiding  detention  is  a  negative  value  which  oper- 
ates widely.  Making  a  reputation  (another  form  of  love 
of  approbation),  doing  one's  duty,  easing  one's  conscience, 
and  a  number  of  others,  are  generic  in  the  sense  that  they 
apply  with  nearly  equal  force  to  every  sort  of  situation. 

Classes  of  Generic  Values. — The  instincts  are  a  well- 
known  class  of  generic  values.  Rivalry,  sympathy,  fear, 
constructiveness,  play,  curiosity  and  love  of  approbation, 
are  some  of  those  most  commonly  used  in  school.  Fear  will 
make  many  children  do  many  sorts  of  things.  Curiosity 
functions  in  many  lessons  and  is  a  steady  stand-by  of 
the  teacher.  Some  teachers  teach  everything  through 
games. 

These  are  motives  to  which  appeal  is  easily  made  and 
because  of  that  may  be  easily  overworked.  One  teacher 
who  taught  geography  in  the  fifth  grade  entirely  by  means 
of  games  and  prided  herself  upon  it,  judged  her  success 
by  the  amount  of  excitement  and  superficial  interest  she 
could  evoke.  But,  tested  by  the  knowledge  of  the  material 
and  ability  to  use  it,  her  pupils  failed.  Desire  to  please  a 
teacher  makes  many  children  work,  but  when  they  leave 
school  or  are  promoted  to  another  room  interest  in  school 
work  may  flag.  They  have  no  motive  for  further  study. 

The  virtues  may  likewise  be  generic  values.  Duty,  hon- 
esty, punctuality,  cleanliness,  thoroughness,  reliability, 
honor,  and  unselfishness,  apply  to  a  wide  range  of  subjects 
and  situations.  A  sense  of  duty  moves  many  to  perform 
a  wide  variety  of  tasks.  Thoroughness  holds  one  to  a  task 
when  other  motives  have  ceased  and  maintains  interest 
when  it  would  otherwise  have  disappeared.  Honor  creates 
interest  in,  certain  situations,  which,  except  for  this  sense, 


l68  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

would  be  avoided.  The  virtues  are  really  moral  devices  for 
regulating  action  along  wise  lines  when  superficial  interests 
would  tend  to  lead  them  astray. 

Vices  are  likewise  generic  values.  Doing  what  one  wants 
to  do,  irrespective  of  the  rights  of  others,  greediness  (tak- 
ing more  than  one's  share),  and  gratification  of  lusts  are  all 
felt  to  be  values  by  those  who  practice  them,  though  judged 
by  objective  standards  they  may  seem  to  be  valueless. 

School  incentives  are  generic  values.  The  desire  to  be 
promoted,  to  make  a  grade,  to  be  first  to  secure  prizes  and 
rewards,  to  avoid  corporal  punishment,  to  please  the 
teacher,  to  escape  detention,  and  to  live  up  to  class  opinion 
are  all  motives  widely  if  not  wisely  used. ' 

These  motives  have  to  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care, 
because  being  school  motives  they  do  not  operate  in  quite 
the  same  form  in  adult  life,  and  if  pupils  form  the  habit 
of  relying  upon  them  as  a  spur  to  action  in  school,  they 
may  have  no  spur  to  take  their  place  in  performing  the 
drudgery  and  prosaic  details  of  life. 

Which  Generic  Values  Should  be  Used? — Abstractly 
the  question  is  easy  to  answer.  Use  the  most  permanent 
and  the  highest  that  will  appeal  to  the  pupils.  Pupils  differ 
at  different  ages  in  the  motives  that  appeal  most  efficiently. 
Love  of  play  is  a  good  motive  at  one  age,  a  poor  motive 
later.  Duty  is  an  adult  motive  but  not  one  that  appeals 
to  children,  especially  boys.  Future  success  appeals  to  the 
adolescent,  but  not  to  his  younger  brother. 

Appealing  to  adult  motives  in  dealing  with  young  chil- 
dren is  a  mistake  often  made  by  teachers.  Children  are 
not  adults,  and  primitive  motives  and  punishments  often 
make  an  appeal  where  the  refined  motives  of  maturer  years 
will  not  operate.  Many  a  boy  has  been  given  a  more 
wholesome  stimulus  to  righteousness  by  the  fists  of  an  irate 


MOTIVE  169 

playmate  behind  the  barn,  than  by  miles  of  gentle  homilies 
delivered  by  his  respected  mother. 

Practically,  it  is  hard  to  decide  what  motive  to  use  in 
any  particular  case  because  children  differ  and  situations 
differ.  The  teacher  has  to  decide  for  himself  which  is  the 
highest  and  most  permanent  motive  that  will  appeal. 

SECTION  3.     SPECIFIC  VALUES 

The  assumption  in  the  use  of  these  generic  values,  where 
they  are  the  only  motives  to  which  appeal  is  made,  is  that 
all  subject-matter  is  alike.  The  principle  established  in 
this  text,  however,  is  that  each  unit  of  subject-matter  has  a 
different  use  and  should  be  taught  when  its  specific  use  is 
recognized  and  needed. 

Because  of  this  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  method  by 
which  a  motive  for  studying  one  specific  unit  rather  than 
another  arises.  These  values  and  motives  we  have  called 
specific  to  distinguish  them  from  generic.  And  by  specific 
values  is  meant  simply  this  fact,  that  there  are  values, 
motives,  needs,  and  interests  which  differ  slightly  from 
every  other. 

The  need  for  a  head-covering,  differs  from  the  need  for 
a  neck-decoration.  The  need  for  a  method  of  telling  time 
differs  from  the  need  for  fastening  two  papers  together. 
And,  in  like  manner,  the  subject-matter  that  satisfies  the 
need  is  different  in  each  case.  The  first  has  produced  the 
hat,  the  second  the  necktie,  the  third  the  watch,  and  the 
fourth  the  paper  clip. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  if  we  are  to  teach  subject-matter 
intelligently,  using  each  unit  where  and  when  the  particular 
need  that  demands  it  is  felt,  we  have  to  pay  attention  to 
these  specific  values  which  each  different  unit  was  made 
to  control. 


170  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

When  Use  Generic  Values? — Generic  motives  should 
supplement  specific  motives  when  the  latter  flag.  A  girl 
may  be  interested  in  making  a  table  decoration.  When  she 
has  partly  finished,  interest  wanes.  Then  the  teacher  may 
appeal  to  some  generic  motive,  such  as  doing  well  whatever 
is  begun,  or  even  fear  of  punishment  if  necessary.  A  boy 
may  not  be  sufficiently  interested  in  his  school  work  to  be 
on  time.  Other  interests  may  conflict.  Then  the  teacher 
may  appeal  to  his  desire  for  punctuality,  or  may  stimulate 
interest  in  punctuality  by  other  motives. 

Classes  of  Specific  Motives. — It  is  impossible  to  classify 
specific  values  in  any  useful  way.  Count  over  the  little 
particular  things  that  you  think  are  valuable,  and  the  task 
of  cataloging  them  will  be  found  to  be  impossible.  In  a 
broad  way  we  have  groups  of  social  values,  moral,  intel- 
lectual, physical,  aesthetic,  religious,  and  practical  values. 
And  again,  to  repeat,  each  group  is  so  large  that  its  units 
cannot  be  enumerated.  Since  needs  arise  when  failure  to 
control  these  values  occurs,  there  is  an  illimitable  number 
of  specific  needs,  each  differing  from  the  others.  For  in- 
stance, in  controlling  physical  values,  there  are  specific  needs 
for  an  erect  carriage,  proper  digestion,  clean  finger-nails, 
deep  breathing,  etc.,  etc. 

From  among  this  number  the  school  selects  the  funda- 
mental values  and  needs,  the  permanent  and  the  tempo- 
rarily important,  and  helps  the  child  to  satisfy  them. 

How  to  Create  a  Specific  Need  for  a  Unit. — The  prin- 
ciple has  already  been  stated.  First,  find  the  specific  func- 
tion of  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught.  Determine  the  value 
it  was  created  to  control.  Second,  see  if  this  value  is  a 
value  to  the  pupils  to  be  taught.  Third,  if  so,  enable  them 
to  recognize  that  they  cannot  control  this  value ;  and,  fourth, 
help  them  to  turn  to  and  conquer  the  subject-matter. 


MOTIVE  171 

Perhaps  the  teacher  wishes  to  take  up  the  methods  of 
curing  mumbling  in  reading.  The  specific  intrinsic  function 
of  these  devices  is  to  assist  the  child  to  convey  a  valuable 
meaning  to  other  people.  Assume  that  he  wants  to  convey 
this  meaning.  Let  him  see  that  his  interested  audience 
cannot  understand  him.  He  will  then  try  to  correct  his 
defect,  and  will  to  that  end  study  methods  of  curing 
mumbling. 

To  "get  the  jump"  on  the  other  team  will  stop  their 
charge.  This  is  the  function  of  "getting  the  jump."  Let 
the  team  play  against  another  team  and  be  forced  back 
because  the  other  team  got  the  jump.  The  defeated  team 
will  try  to  get  the  jump  the  next  time  they  play  games. 

If  we  appealed  to  the  generic  values,  we  would  assume 
that  the  mumbling  reader  wanted  to  do  his  duty,  wanted  to 
excel,  to  avoid  punishment,  etc.  We  would  get  him  to  recog- 
nize that  if  he  did  not  cure  it  he  would  be  neglecting  his 
plain  duty,  would  not  excel,  would  be  punished,  etc.,  and 
would  expect  him  to  learn  the  tricks.  The  team  would  be 
supposed  to  have  the  honor  of  the  school  at  heart,  etc.,  and 
would  be  shown  that  the  honor  would  be  lowered  if  they  did 
not  "get  the  jump." 

The  advantages  of  the  appeal  to  the  specific  motives  is 
obvious.  A  definite  use  for  the  subject  to  be  taught  is  seen. 

Inasmuch  as  all  the  specific  examples  in  the  remainder  of 
the  text,  no  matter  what  problem  of  teaching  is  to  be  exem- 
plified, will  utilize  specific  motives,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
illustrate  them  more  fully  here. 

REFERENCES    FOR    CLASS    READING 

Angell,  Psychology,  pp.  63-66,  214-217. 
Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  83-85. 
Bagley,  Educational  Values,  pp.  120-127. 


!^2  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  illustrations  of  how  a  need  is  aroused  for 
practical,  out-of-school  things. 

2.  How  do  you  suppose  the  need  arose  for  multiplica- 
tion, for  stocks  and  bonds,  for  weather  maps,  for  botany, 
for  alchemy,  for  windows,   for   furnaces?     What  in  each 
case  was  the  value,  what  the  difficulty? 

3.  Select  ten  other  objects  of  common  use  and  state 
how  you  think  the  need  arose. 

4.  Give  five  cases  of  where  things  were  done  in  which 
the  need  may  have  been  either  implicit  or  felt.    Describe  the 
mental  content  in  both  the  implicit  need  and  the  felt  need 
in  each  case. 

5.  Give  five  cases  of  where  you  have  been  spurred  to 
action  by  being  made  to  feel  your  shortcomings. 

6.  Give  five   cases   in   which   interest  was   secured   in 
things  because  of  superficial  appeal  to  catchy  interests.    How 
would  you  have  made  a  worthy  appeal  ? 

7.  What  do  you  think  of  corporal  punishment  as  a 
means  of  making  pupils  do  their  work?    Should  it  ever  be 
used?    If  so,  when? 

8.  Should  an  appeal  be  made  to  the  children's  desire  to 
make  good  grades ?    If  so,  when? 

9.  What  are  the  dangers  in  an  attractive  teacher  using 
her  attractiveness  to  make  pupils  work? 

10.  State  five  cases  in  which  a  teacher  might  have  used 
an  appeal  to  specific  values  instead  of  making  an  appeal  to 
generic  values.    How? 

11.  Recall  the  methods  of  each  grade  teacher  that  you 
have  had  and  see  whether  the  appeal  was  made  to  specific 
use  of  subject-matter  or  to  generic  values.    Be  very  careful 
in  your  report. 


CHAPTER  XI 
MOTIVE—  (Continued) 

SECTION    i.     ACTIVE  AND   POTENTIAL   MOTIVES 

If  subject-matter  is  not  to  be  presented  to  children  until 
they  feel  the  specific  need  for  it,  what  shall  we  do  with 
important  subject-matter  for  which  they  feel  no  need? 
There  are  three  answers  to  that  question,  all  of  which  de- 
pend upon  a  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  two  classes  of 
needs — active  and  potential. 

A  potential  need  is  one  not  felt,  but  such  that  it  can  be 
felt  by  the  pupils.  The  suggestion  of  the  need  by  the 
teacher  or  by  the  class  will  call  it  into  action.  A  man  has, 
perhaps,  never  felt  any  need  for  repainting  his  house,  but 
it  is  possible  that  he  can  be  made  to  do  so.  A  boy  has 
never  felt  the  need  for  being  honest,  but  he  may  be  made 
to  feel" it.  A  pupil  has  never  felt  the  need  of  knowing 
arithmetic,  but  he,  in  turn,  may  be  made  to  feel  it.  The 
pupils  may  easily  be  put  into  many  situations  in  which 
the  sense  of  need  can  be  developed. 

Sometimes,  however,  no  need  may  be  felt,  nor  can  it  be 
aroused.  It  is  hard  to  make  a  Hindoo  feel  that  he  needs 
skates,  some  farmer  that  he  needs  an  automobile,  a  woman 
that  she  needs  a  pair  of  brogans.  Frequently  boys  cannot 
be  made  to  feel  the  specific  and  intrinsic  need  for  Latin  or 
for  cooking,  just  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  some  girls 
feel  any  need  for  algebra  or  physics. 

There  are,  then,  three  possible  cases.     A  need  may  be 

173 


I74  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

felt;  it  may  not  be  felt  but  may  be  potential;  it  may  not 
be  felt  and  may  not  be  potential. 

To  the  question  above,  Should  children  study  subject- 
matter  for  which  they  feel  no  need?  the  answer  is,  If  the 
intrinsic  need  is  potential,  they  should;  if  it  is  not  felt  and 
cannot  be  aroused,  they  should  not. 

This  contradicts  many  teachers  who  feel  that  things  for 
which  the  intrinsic  need  is  not  now  felt  should  be  taught 
because  they  will  be  of  use  in  later  life.  One  argument  is 
sufficient  to  meet  this  position.  We  know  from  the 
psychology  of  memory  that  if  a  thing  is  learned  and  is  not 
used  for  years  it  is  sure  to  be  forgotten.  How  many  men 
can  remember  one-tenth  of  what  is  in  a  text-book  whose 
subject-matter  they  have  not  used  since  they  left  school? 
Learning  things  that  are  not  immediately  useful  means  that 
we  temporarily  load  the  memory  with  junk  which  will  be 
a  present  encumbrance  and,  before  the  time  for  using  it 
arrives,  will  have  been  unloaded. 

One  can  always  create  a  generic  need  for  any  subject- 
matter.  Tell  a  sensitive  boy  to  learn  the  Chinese  alphabet 
or  he  will  be  thrashed,  and  he  will  do  it.  There  is  always 
present  some  potential  generic  need  which  can  be  turned 
upon  any  subject.  But  in  the  answer  to  our  question  we 
were  speaking  only  of  specific  needs. 

SECTION  2.     THE  PROBLEM  AS  MOTIVE 

Within  the  last  three  years  a  very  considerable  body  of 
literature  has  sprung  up  around  the  place  of  problems  in 
teaching.  Previous  to  that  time  writers  talked  about  the 
aim  or  the  topic  of  the  recitation. 

The  problem  is  simply  one  phase  of  need.  When  the 
need  emerges  it  gives  rise  to  the  problem  of  satisfying 
the  need.  If  one  needs  bread,  his  problem  becomes  that 


MOTIVE  175 

of  securing  bread.  If  a  boy  needs  a  saw,  his  problem  is 
to  satisfy  the  need  and  secure  the  saw.  If  a  pupil  needs  to 
learn  a  rule  in  grammar,  his  problem  becomes  that  of 
learning  it. 

Just  as  we  say  each  unit  of  subject-matter  was  created  to 
satisfy  some  need,  we  also  say  it  was  created  to  solve  some 
problem. 

The  difference  between  need  and  problem  is  chiefly  this, 
that  the  need  has  feeling  in  it,  while  the  problem  is  purely 
intellectual.  This  is  evident  in  the  two  statements:  He 
needs  to  earn  money,  and,  his  problem  is  to  earn  money. 
The  second  is  intellectual — no  feeling.  The  first  has  much 
that  the  second  does  not  have,  and  this  additional  element 
is  chiefly  feeling.  Literature  satisfies  needs  and  does  more 
than  merely  solve  problems.  If  it  merely  solved  problems, 
literature  would  be  only  a  matter  of  information.  But  it 
is  more;  it  is  satisfying.  Hamlet  solves  a  problem;  it  also 
satisfies  a  need. 

Origin  of  Problems. — The  conditions  under  which  a 
problem  arises  are  the  same  as  those  under  which  a  need 
arises.  We  have  first  something  we  wish  to  do,  then  an 
obstacle  to  doing  it;  and  this  gives  rise  to  the  problem. 

There  are  several  types  of  situations  in  which  problems 
arise.  Of  these,  a  few  of  the  most  important  will  be 
mentioned  here. 

Habits.  —  Problems  arise  when  familiar  methods  of 
doing  things  fail.  To  lace  my  shoe  uses  a  series  of  move- 
ments, so  that  I  need  pay  no  attention  to  it.  I  break  the 
lace.  Then  a  problem  arises  as  to  how  to  get  my  shoes 
iaced  now.  A  child  works  a  problem  in  multiplication 
largely  by  habit.  He  checks  it  and  finds  that  he  is  wrong. 
The  problem  of  correcting  it  arises.  A  boy  has  been  accus- 
tomed to  working  on  the  principle  that  I  man  can  do 


176  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

twice  as  much  work  in  2  days  as  in  i  day.  He  is  given 
the  problem,  How  long  will  it  take  2  men  to  do  a  piece  of 
work  if  one  does  it  in  I  day?  Applying  the  same  principle, 
he  will  answer,  2  days.  But  this  means,  so  he  is  told,  that 
2  men  take  twice  as  long  to  do  a  piece  of  work  as  i  man 
does.  He  sees  the  absurdity  and  a  problem  arises. 

Conflict  Among  Ideas. — Adams1  says,  "The  ideas  within 
the  mind  must  be  at  peace  with  each  other.  The  moment 
friction  arises  there  must  be  ceaseless  activity  till  the  dis- 
agreement is  removed.  Consistency  among  the  ideas  is  an 
essential  to  quietness  of  mind.  All  the  mental  content 
must  be  harmonized ;  there  must  be  no  contradiction  in  the 
arrangement  that  has  been  imposed  upon  the  ideas." 

When  the  teacher  makes  use  of  this  principle  in  teaching, 
Adams  calls  it  Confrontation.2  That  is,  the  teacher  may 
raise  a  problem  by  confronting  two  ideas  which  are  within 
the  pupils'  experience  but  which  are  contradictory.  For 
instance,  in  teaching  the  siphon  the  teacher  may  ask  the 
pupils,  "Does  water  ever  run  up  hill?"  The  pupils  will 
reply,  "Of  course  not."  Then  the  teacher  may  set  a  work- 
ing siphon  on  the  table,  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  say  is, 
"Well,  how  about  this?"  Here  an  old  accepted  idea  is 
met  by  a  fact  in  plain  sight.  And  there  will  be  no  rest  until 
the  two  are  reconciled. 

Adams  gives  four  or  five  cases,3  of  which  the  following 
is  interesting  for  the  reason  that  the  teacher  as  well  as  the 
pupils  were  confronted  by  inconsistencies:  "A  teacher,  giv- 
ing a  lesson  to  a  young  class  on  a  bluebottle,  asked  how 
the  creature  made  its  familiar  buzzing  noise.  When  she 
received  an  answer,  she  told  the  children  that  she  expected 

1  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching,  p.  75. 
1  Op.  cit.,  p.  79- 
'  Op.  cit.,  pp.  75-84. 


MOTIVE  177 

that  answer.  Of  course  they  thought  the  bluebottle  buzzed 
with  its  mouth,  because  when  they  wanted  to  buzz  they  did 
it  with  their  mouths.  Accepting  the  teacher's  word  that 
they  were  wrong,  the  class  had  no  peace  till  she  told  them 
that  the  buzzing  was  caused  by  the  wings.  This  gave  the 
children  perfect  satisfaction,  as  it  did  the  teacher,  till  her 
Normal  instructor  pointed  out  that  if  you  remove  the  blue- 
bottle's wings  it  does  not  stop  buzzing,  but  actually  buzzes 
a  little  harder  than  usual.  It  was  now  the  teacher's  turn  to 
be  worried,  and  it.  was  not  till  she  had  learned  about  the 
special  little  buzzing  organ1  that  she  could  drop  the  subject 
and  be  at  peace  once  more." 

A  teacher  is  teaching  commission.  The  pupils  have  just 
solved  this  problem :  What  is  an  agent's  commission  for 
selling  $3000  wrorth  of  goods  at  i  %  ?  The  teacher  slips  in 
the  following  problem  without  explanation :  A  man.  sends 
$2500  to  a  commission  agent  out  of  which  to  buy  goods 
after  deducting  the  agent's  commission  of  2%.  What  was 
the  agent's  commission?  Invariably  the  pupils  will  answer, 
$50.  To  confront  them  with  their  error  the  teacher  may 
say,  "How  much  did  the  agent  invest?"  Answer:  $2450. 
"Then,  what  is  the  commission  on  $2450  at  2%  ?"  An- 
swer: $49.  "But  you  found  just  a  moment  ago  that  he 
received  $50.  Now  you  say  $49.  This  is  a  pretty  state  of 
affairs  for  a  strong  arithmetic  class — getting  two  answers 
that  are  not  alike." 

Concrete  Activities. — The  problem  can  be  made  to 
stand  out  prominently  in  work  done  with  tangible  materials, 
such  as  wood,  iron,  cooking  materials,  etc.  A  domestic 
science  pupil  may  not  see  any  problems  in  preliminary 
work  on  foods.  But  if  she  makes  muffins  which  are  soggy. 

1  Discovered  by  Landois.  T.  H.  Huxley :  Anatomy  of  Inverte- 
brated  Animals,  p.  377. 


178  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

a  problem  comes  unmistakably  into  consciousness.  So  with 
woodworking.  The  difficulties  are  evident  to  the  eye.  All 
work  that  can  be  "put  down  in  black  and  white"  is  excep- 
tionally good  for  making  the  pupils  realize  their  difficulties. 

Curiosity. — The  desire  to  know  what  is  not  known  just 
for  the  sake  of  knowing  it  is  a  deep-seated  tendency  of 
human  kind,  and,  to  a  less  degree,  of  all  the  other  higher 
animals. 

Earhart1  says,  "A  prolific  source  of  problems,  whether  in 
school  or  out  of  it,  is  curiosity.  We  wonder  zvhy,  or  how, 
or  what,  and  reach  out  in  other  directions  for  more  knowl- 
edge. This  curiosity  may  be  an  idle,  fleeting  kind,  which, 
left  to  itself,  would  result  in  little  effort  and  progress.  It 
may  be  of  a  primitive  nature,  not  being  based  upon  pre- 
vious knowledge.  A  teacher  appeals  to  primitive  curiosity 
when  he  leads  his  class  to  desire  to  hear  a  story  they  have 
never  heard  before,  or  to  see  something  new.  He  arouses 
expectation  and  desire  which  are  directed  towards  unknown 
objects.  Rightly  valued  and  employed,  however,  curiosity 
may  be  made  a  valuable  agent  in  education. 

Intelligent  curiosity,  which  is  based  upon  partial  knowl- 
edge, which  reaches  out  to  some  definite  end,  and  which 
leads  to  some  adequate  method  of  attainment  of  that  end, 
cannot  be  over-estimated  as  a  means  of  development  and 
training.  Consequently  the  suppression  of  curiosity  just 
because  it  is  curiosity,  or  the  rejection  of  a  method  just 
because  it  appeals  to  curiosity,  is  short-sighted.  The  appeal 
to  curiosity  is  justifiable,  but  it  should  lead  to  some  intelli- 
gent end,  and  not  remain  upon  the  level  of  mere  idle  wonder. 

A  teacher  may  have  in  view  the  teaching  of  an  important 
lesson  in  some  subject;  she  may  lead  the  children  to  ap- 
proach it  by  appealing  to  a  curiosity  initially  connected  with 

1  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  1 1  and  12. 


MOTIVE  179 

some  superficial  fact.  The  explanation  of  that  fact  leads 
into  the  subject  step  by  step,  until,  when  the  lesson  period 
is  over,  the  teacher's  aim  is  accomplished.  A  lesson  on  gla- 
ciers may  begin  with  the  observation  of  markings  on  rocks, 
or  the  discovery  of  boulders  in  the  soil.  The  question  arises, 
'How  did  they  come  to  be  there?'  and  in  answering  it  the 
subject  of  glaciers  is  taught.  A  comparative  study  of  cot- 
ton and  wool  might  be  introduced  by  the  question  as  to 
why  wool  was  used  before  cotton  for  making  cloth.  Simi- 
larly in  other  subjects,  some  fact  may  be  brought  to  the 
attention  which  provokes  the  curiosity  and  tends  to  direct 
thought  into  desired  channels." 

Discipline  of  Natural  Consequences. — Spencer  applied 
the  principle  we  have  been  working  with  here.  He  calls  it 
the  discipline  of  natural  consequences.  He  says  in  effect: 
Parents  obtrude  themselves  too  much  into  the  moral  educa- 
tion of  their  children.  What  they  should  do  is  to  let  the 
child  go  ahead  and  do  the  wrong  act,  and  then  see  that  the 
natural  consequence  of  this  act  is  visited  upon  him — this 
natural  consequence,  being  painful,  will  make  him  halt  and 
thereafter  he  will  do  the  right  thing.  For  instance — he  says, 
if  a  child  makes  a  litter  the  natural  consequence  is  not  that 
the  mother  should  scold  and  then  pick  up  the  articles  ;  rather, 
it  is  that  the  child  should  pick  them  up  himself.  If  a  girl 
is  not  ready  to  take  her  walk  with  her  mother,  the  natural 
consequence  is  that  she  stay  at  home.1 

Most  teachers,  like  most  parents,  push  themselves  too 
much  into  the  learning  process.  They  are  too  ready  to  say, 
"That  is  wrong,"  instead  of  letting  the  pupil  go  on  until 
he  sees  that  he  is  wrong.  A  sentence  was  given  for  analysis : 
High  flew  the  spray  above  their  heads.  The  teacher  said, 
"What  is  the  subject?" 
1  Spencer,  Education,  pp.  162-213. 


l8o  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

"High,"  answered  a  boy.        .  ; 

"What  is  the  verb?" 

"Flew." 

"Object?" 

"Spray." 

"Is  flew  transitive  or  intransitive?" 

"Intransitive." 

"How  can  it  have  an  object?" 

No  answer.  (He  saw  that  he  had  made  an  error  some- 
where and  was  ready  to  begin  over  again.) 

This  is  better  than  for  the  teacher  to  have  said  "Wrong" 
after  the  boy  said  that  the  subject  was  "high";  for  now  he 
does  not  have  to  accept  the  ipse  dixit  of  the  teacher ;  he  sees 
that  he  is  wrong. 

Then,  again,  most  teachers  do  too  much  preliminary  ex- 
plaining. We  have  been  taught  disastrously  to  divide  a  les- 
son into  such  little  steps  that  the  pupil  can  go  along  easily. 
For  instance,  in  the  transition  to  the  new  type  of  commis- 
sion problem  from  the  first  given  above,  teachers  usually 
stop  and  say,  "This  is  different,  it  differs  in  such  and  such 
particulars.  Before  we  begin  to  work  them  let  us  take  a 
few  easier  problems,  etc." 

The  writer  believes  that  it  is  better  to  slip  the  new  type 
in  without  warning.  The  pupils  go  blithely  ahead  using  the 
old  plan,  they  are- brought  up  sharp,  and  then  they  see  the 
use  of  the  teacher's  explanations,  because  they  see  that  they 
have  made  a  mess  of  their  work. 

Three-quarters  of  the  preliminary  explanations  is  wasted 
breath.  You  want  to  learn  to  ride  a  bicycle.  Your  experi- 
enced friend  delivers  a  long  homily  on  how  to  do  it.  He  is, 
in  fact,  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  give  the  advice.  You 
listen,  do  not  know  what  it  all  means,  feel  that  this  is  an 
unusually  intricate  business,  and  are  itching  to  start.  When 


MOTIVE  l8l 

you  get  on  you  forget  all  that  he  has  said — and  flounder. 
The  best  advice  he  can  give  you  is,  "Get  on  and  ride."  You 
do  so.  Then  you  begin  to  ask  questions,  "How  do  I  place 
my  feet  ?  etc."  And  now,  when  he  gives  you  all  the  informa- 
tion he  might  have  given  you  before  you  started,  you  see  the 
use  of  it  and  can  profit  by  it. 

If  we  are  to  keep  education  free  from  the  stigma  of 
"spoon  feeding"  we  must  give  the  growing  boy  some  diffi- 
culties to  master  which  at  the  start  are  just  a  little  bit  bigger 
than  he  is.  We  can  help  him  out  after  he  has  gotten  into 
them.  Though  often  if  we  give  him  a  chance  we  find  that  he 
has  more  brains  than  we  thought  he  had. 

Facing  difficulties  about  our  size  is  most  exhilarating. 
Doing  little  easy  things  is  very  tiresome.  If  you  want  people 
to  work  for  you  give  them  something  to  do  so  hard  that  it 
will  extend  their  powers.  It  fires  the  imagination,  calls 
forth  all  the  energies  of  mind  and  muscle,  and,  in  short, 
is  fun. 

Facing  difficulties  without  preliminary  advice  is  also  ex- 
hilarating. Mother  says,  "Don't  do  that,  Willie,  or  you  will 
get  hurt."  It  is  much  better  (within  reason)  to  say,  "Go 
ahead,  Willie,  and  see  what  happens."  The  shock  shows 
Willie  that  it  would  be  better  to  leave  "that"  alone.  To  him 
this  shock  is  both  efficacious  and  thrilling.  There  is  a  world 
of  significance  in  his  remark,  "I  sure  won't  do  that  again." 
He  is  feeling  the  effect  of  the  discipline  of  natural  conse- 
quences. 

SECTION  3.    THE  PROBLEM  AND  THE  STATEMENT  OF  AIM 

Teachers  acquainted  with  the  Herbartian  Five  Formal 
Steps  will  remember  that  in  the  step  of  Preparation  the  aim 
of  the  lesson  is  stated.  "The  third  precaution  in  this  step 
[Preparation],"  say  the  McMurrys,1  "is  fully  as  important 

1  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  p.  105. 


182  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

as  either  of  the  other  two,  and,  in  fact,  conditions  the  success 
of  both ;  it  requires  the  statement  of  the  aim.  The  attention 
of  pupils  must  be  centered  quickly  and  fully  on  the  work 
undertaken."  The  aim  of  the  recitation  should  be  stated 
at  the  outset. 

It  is  impossible  in  application  of  the  Five  Formal  Steps  to 
get  away  from  the  fact  that  the  standpoint  looks  upon  each 
unit  of  subject-matter  as  relatively  isolated.  The  teacher  is 
advised  to  state  what  he  is  going  to  take  up  with  the  pupils. 
To  be  sure  it  must  be  along  the  line  of  the  pupils'  direct 
interests.  But  in  this  plan  there  is  no  necessary  connection 
with  the  pupil's  past,  to  say  nothing  of  his  present,  except 
that  which  is  made  through  review  of  the  past  by  the  teacher. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  of  beginning  a  lesson  only 
when  a  problem  or  need  is  present,  implies  a  change  of  point 
of  view  from  a  unit  of  subject-matter  selected  and  "made 
interesting"  to  the  pupils,  to  a  consideration  of  the  pupil  and 
his  difficulties.  The  subject-matter  in  the  second  case  be- 
comes secondary  to  the  needs  and  problems,  to  the  values  of 
the  pupil's  experience. 

As  Bagley  says,1  "the  aim  [of  the  lesson]  should  .  .  . 
relate  the  forthcoming  subject-matter  to  the  needs  of  the 
child ;  that  is,  it  should  seize  upon  some  need  and  shozv  how 
it  may  be  satisfied." 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  stating  the  problem 
of  a  lesson  and  raising  the  problem,  and  a  still  wider  differ- 
ence between  the  teacher's  stating  an  aim  and  the  pupils' 
realizing  a  problem.  If  a  teacher  raises  the  problem  he 
goes  back  to  values  the  pupil  has,  and  presents  difficulties. 
After  the  problem  is  raised  it  ought  at  times  to  be  stated 
for  the  sake  of  clearness.  But  its  statement  ought  never  to 
be  forced.  The  teacher  ought  never  to  state  it  unless  he  is 

1  The  Educative  Process,  p.  292. 


MOTIVE  183 

sure  that  it  is  a  real  problem ;  i.  e.,  is  closely  related  to  the 
values  of  the  pupil. 

Instead  of  saying  that  the  first  thing  in  the  lesson  is  the 
statement  of  the  aim,  it  is  preferable  to  say  that  the  first 
thing  is  to  raise  the  problem  or  to  arouse  the  need. 

Summary. — In  this  and  the  two  foregoing  chapters  we 
have  tried  to  show  that  children  have  certain  native  and  im- 
mediate interests  and  values  which  determine  the  direction 
that  their  activity  is  to  take.  It  was  pointed  out  that  there 
were  potential  interests  and  values  which  could  be  made 
active.  It  is  the  business  of  teaching  to  make  the  potential 
become  active,  and  to  assist  the  pupils  to  secure  efficient 
control  over  the  most  important  interests  and  values.  To  do 
this  subject-matter  is  used,  subject-matter  for  which  there 
is  often  no  motive  until  the  pupils  recognize  the  necessity 
of  learning  this  subject-matter  in  order  to  acquire  control 
over  their  immediate  interests.  This  recognition  of  lack  of 
control  on  the  part  of  the  learner  is  called  need.  The  prob- 
lem is  related  closely  to  need.  And  both  are  necessary  mo- 
tives for  the  acquisition  of  new  subject-matter.  These  needs 
may  be  generic  or  specific  according  to  whether  the  values 
to  be  controlled  are  the  great  intrinsic  values  which  provide 
motives  in  all  phases  of  life,  or  are  values  differing  each 
from  the  other  for  the  control  of  which  each  specific  unit 
of  subject-matter  has  been  constructed. 

REFERENCES    FOR    CLASS    READING 

Adams,  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching,  pp.  75-85 
and  171-184. 

De  Garmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  21-27. 

Dewey,  How  We  Think,  pp.  68-74. 

Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  7-21. 


184  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Miller,  Psychology  of  Thinking,  pp.  115-129. 
Spencer,  Education,  pp.   175-189. 
EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  cases  of  potential  needs  made  active.    State 
how  each  was  made  active. 

2.  Explain  how  the  orator  makes  potential  needs  active. 
Why  is  the  orator  so  successful  in  this? 

3.  Of  what  use  are  radicals  and  reformers  in  making 
potential  needs  active? 

4.  State  two  great  needs  of  adult  life  that  are  absent 
in  early  childhood,  potential  in  adolescence,  and  active  in 
maturity. 

5.  What  do  you  think  of  the  proposition  that  pupils 
should  learn  many  things  for  which  they  have  no  use  at 
the  time  but  which  will  be  useful  in  after  life?    Name  ten 
things  studied  that  have  this  as  the  reason  for  being  taught. 

•  6.  Give  five  cases  of  where  a  problem  in  your  thinking 
has  arisen  because  some  long  accepted  belief  has  met  with 
facts  that  contradict  it.  Did  you  feel  worried  about  any 
of  these  before  getting  them  settled? 

7.  Describe  something  you  have  done  recently  in  which 
you  have  met  with  a  whole  series  of  problems  as  you  carried 
it  on. 

8.  Give  five  cases  in  which  the  plan  of  allowing  pupils 
to  make  statement,  and  then  carrying  them  on  till  they  saw 
that  they  were  wrong,  worked. 

9.  What  are  the  limitations  to  the  application  of  the 
discipline  of  natural  consequences? 

10.  McMurry  says  that  the  statement  of  the  aim  should 
have  five  characteristics  (The  Method  of  the  Recitation, 
pp.  107-111).  If  you  are  careful  to  raise  the  problem  out 
of  the  child's  experience  will  the  teacher  obey  these  rules 
unconsciously  or  not? 


CHAPTER   XII 

CONTROL  OF   VALUES 

SECTION  j.    METHODS  OF  CONTROL. 

Illustrations  of  methods  of  securing-  motives  will  be  de- 
ferred until  the  control  of  values  and  the  systematized  and 
incidental  study  of  subject-matter  is  discussed,  because  they 
are  so  closely  bound  together  that  much  duplication  will 
thereby  be  avoided. 

Classes  of  Control. — In  this  chapter  we  shall  first  dis- 
cuss the  methods  of  control  that  are  worked  out  and  later 
the  way  in  which  they  are  worked  out. 

The  first  may  be  stated  in  the  form  of  a  question :  What 
are  the  methods  of  control  that  any  individual  has  at  hand 
when  he  attempts  to  secure  this  control? 

The  answer  is  supplied  by  Bagley,  whose  classification 
will  be  followed  here.1 

Inherited  Controls. — Every  pupil  has  at  his  command 
certain  instincts  and  reflexes  which  control  values  for  him. 
One  excellent  illustration  of  instinctive  control  is  found  in 
imitation,  which  operates  all  through  life  and  is  particu- 
larly strong  during  the  early  years  of  school.  Flight  is 
another  inherited  method  of  control  when  some  value  is 
in  jeopardy.  Simple  reflexes  such  as  winking  the  eyes  at 
the  approach  of  foreign  substances  are  also  useful.  The 
great  rhythmic  reflexes  such  as  circulation  and  respira- 

1  Educational  Values,  pp.  1-77. 

185 


l$6  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tion  are  invaluable  methods  of  sustaining  and  improving 
life. 

Acquired  Controls. — There  are  four  main  classes. 

Specific  habits  become  automatic.  Writing  is  largely  a 
habit.  I  have  an  idea,  take  a  pen  and  start  to  write.  The 
reaction  is  automatic.  A  carpenter  is  making  a  box,  he 
picks  up  a  board  and  a  saw.  No  attention  is  paid  to  the 
way  the  handle  is  gripped  or  to  the  muscular  to  and  fro 
movement  because  habit  controls  it  automatically.  Other 
illustrations  are  unnecessary.  A  very  large  percentage  of 
all  values  controlled,  are  controlled  by  habit. 

Knowledge  is  a  second  type  of  control.  Ideas,  facts, 
principles  are  stored  and  utilized  when  the  appropriate 
occasion  arises.  Damp  feet  induce  a  cold,  mere  book-learn- 
ing is  ineffective,  matches  should  not  be  thrown  in  the 
waste-paper  basket,  America  was  discovered  in  1492,  be- 
ware the  gift-bearing  Greeks,  automobiles  are  expensive,  are 
random  illustrations  of  facts  and  principles  which  control 
our  actions.  Electricity,  furnace,  typhoid,  mosquito,  flies, 
are  ideas,  knowledge  of  which  likewise  influence  action. 
All  knowledge,  whether  accurate  or  inaccurate,  influences 
action. 

Ideals  are  values  and  in  a  way  determine  methods  of  con- 
trol. Ideas  are  intellectual :  ideals  are  emotional.  Ideals  of 
honesty,  accuracy,  thoroughness  are  charged  with  feelings. 
And  they  affect  action.  I  need  one  thousand  dollars.  I 
might  steal  it.  But  the  ideal  of  honesty  negatives  that 
method  of  control. 

Prejudices,  tastes,  and  attitudes  control  conduct.  ,  Of 
course,  prejudices  may  be  either  good  or  bad.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent thing  to  have  a  prejudice — a  bent — toward  honesty 
just  as  it  is  bad  to  be  prejudiced  against  a  foreigner  because 
he  is  a  foreigner.  Tastes  in  like  manner  are  good  or  bad. 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  187 

Attitude  is  a  term  that  properly  includes  tastes  and 
prejudices. 

The  important  thing  about  all  these  methods  of  control  is 
that  they  are  forceful  and  effective  as  actual  methods  of 
control;  and  the  more  intangible  are  probably  more  power- 
ful than  mere  knowledge.  One's  prejudices  and  attitudes 
toward  life  are  often  contrary  to  what  he  knowrs.  But  gen- 
erally speaking,  where  prejudices  and  knowledge  conflict 
prejudices  win  out.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  make  knowl- 
edge conflict  with  prejudices  because  there  is  an  inborn  ten- 
dency to  see  in  any  situation  what  we  want  to  see. 

Hence  it  is  more  important  that  attitudes,  tastes,  preju- 
dices and  ideals  are  effective  and  right  than  that  they 
should  be  wrong  and  knowledge  and  information  be  exten- 
sive and  accurate. 

The  teacher  gets  the  pupils  with  their  prejudices  already 
formed  or  in  a  process  of  formation  outside  school.  If  he 
seeks  only  to  give  information,  he  will  have  little  forceful 
influence  in  their  lives.  But  if  he  uses  information  and 
repetition  in  such  a  way  as  to  batter  down  inefficient  preju- 
dices, tastes,  attitudes  and  ideals  and  nourish  and  protect 
efficient  ones,  he  may  hope  to  perform  an  effective  educa- 
tional service. 

The  important  pedagogical  question  remaining  is,  How 
are  these  acquired  controls  acquired?  (The  instincts  and 
reflexes  are,,  of  course,  not  acquired  by  an  individual ;  they 
are  inherited.)  This  process  will  be  discussed  in  the  next 
section  and  will  be  found  to  involve  the  principles  already 
elaborated  in  the  text. 

SECTION  2.    ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PROCESS  OF  CONTROL 

Needs. — Habits,  knowledge,  ideals,  prejudices,  tastes 
and  attitudes  arise  in  response  to  needs.  This  we  have 


188  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

discussed  in  part.  All  these  methods  of  control  just  men- 
tioned are  ways  of  acting,  thinking,  and  feeling,  and,  as 
has  been  shown,  habit  and  knowledge  are  the  result  of  dis- 
satisfaction with  other  habits  and  earlier  lack  of  information. 
Prejudices,  likewise,  are  fallen  into  because  they  seem  to 
handle  the  situation  well.  A  boy  may  belong  to  a  group 
in  which  the  opinion  is  openly  held  that  any  boy  who  will 
not  lie  to  shield  the  group  is  a  coward.  The  desire  to  stand 
in  with  the  group,  superinduced  by  the  knowledge  of  what 
will  happen  if  he  does  not,  compels  him  to  accept  this  preju- 
dice as  his  own,  and  repetition  weaves  it  into  the  body  of 
his  tissue  of  prejudices  and  attitudes  toward  life. 

Even  though  information  and  habits  are  picked  up  at 
random,  they  are  acquired  bit  by  bit,  and  each  bit  if  care- 
fully analyzed  will  be  found  to  have  some  need  as  its  motive. 

Problem. — We  have  just  seen  when  the  new  subject- 
matter  is  acquired.  It  is  gained  at  a  time  when  there  is  a 
need  for  it.  If  we  inquire  how  it  is  acquired,  we  shall  get 
the  best  assistance  from  books  by  studying  the  methods  by 
which  problems  are  solved.  How  problems  arise  and  their 
relation  to  need  were  discussed  in  the  last  chapter.  How 
they  are  solved  will  be  treated  at  this  point. 

Case  i.  In  arithmetic  we  have  problems  like  this :  How 
much  U.  P.  preferred  at  150  can  I  buy  for  2000  shares  of 
U.  S  Steel  common  at  67,  brokerage  ^  ? 

The  directions  the  pupils  follow  are : 

(1)  What  is  to  be  found? 

(2)  What  is  given? 
(3)*  Solve. 

(4)  Check  up. 
The  pupil  \vorks  through  as  follows: 

(1)  To  find  number  of  U.  P.  shares. 

(2)  Given  a)  U.  P.  shares  at  150  (to  buy). 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  189 

b)  2000  shares  of  U.  S.  Steel  common 

at  67  (invested). 

c)  brokerage  l/%. 
(3)  Solution. 

2000  shares  U.  S.  Steel  at  67  =    134000 

Brokerage  =         250 


Net  proceeds  =    133750 

I  share  of  U.  P.  pref.  =$       150 

Brokerage  on  i  share  — 


Gross  price  per  share  =  $ 

Amount  to  invest  =$I3375° 

Number  of  shares  =  133750  H-  150^5  =     890^ 

(89oHt?  X  150^  +  250) 
(4)  Check =  2000 

6? 
Case  2.     In  algebra  we  may  have  an  example  like  this: 

Solve  X4  +  X2  — 2  =  O 
The  pupil  will  proceed  as  follows : 

1)  To  find  factors 

2)  Given  a)  equation  as  stated 

b)   certain  rules  for  solution. 

3)  a)  throw  into  form  of  quadratic 

X*  +  X2  —  2  =  O 
(X2)2— (X2)— 2  =  O 
Factor  by  trial 

X2  +  2 

X2— i 

(X2  +  2)   (X2  —  i)=O 
Again,  factor 

(X2  +  2)  (X-i)  (X  +  i) 


190  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Again, 


(X—  V—  2)   (X+V—  £)   (X—  i)   (X+i)=0 

Roots  =  +V  —  2>  —  V  —  2,  +i,  —  i 
or  (3)  could  be  carried  on  by  the  longer  method 
X*-fX2—  2=O 

X2=—  i+yT+8 


2 

— i=  —  2  or 


X*=—2or  I 

X  =  -f-V—  2,  —  V—  2,  +i,  or  —I 
Checking.  X4  +  X2  —  2 

•+V]^2 
-V-2 

+  1 
—  I 


2)4+    (V=2)2-2- 
4  —  2  —  2  =  O 

(_V^2)4+(VH2)2_2_0 

4  —  2  —  2=O 

(+l)4+(+l)2-2 
1  +  I—  2=O 

(-l)4+(-l)2-2  = 
1  +  I—  2  =  O 

.  A  few  weeks  ago  my  wife  reported  to  me  that 
some  bugs  were  stripping  the  tomato  vines.  I  here  had  a 
problem.  I  was  supposed  to  find  a  method  of  destroying  the 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  191 

bugs.  A  visit  was  made  to  the  garden  to  see  exactly  what 
the  pests  looked  like.  They  were  very  large  and  seem- 
ingly very  hungry.  What  elements  were  given  ?  In  this  case 
a  rather  hazy  knowledge  of  poisons — and  the  bugs.  -I  con- 
sulted my  neighbor  who  was  an  expert  horticulturist.  His 
advice  was  to  knock  them  off  one  by  one  and  kill  them, 
since  they  enjoyed  and  seemed  to  thrive  upon  all  known 
poisons.  This  I  tried,  there,  fortunately,  being  few.  The 
vines  were  not  molested  further,  as  was  shown  by  occa- 
sional examination. 

Here  again  we  have  the  old  form  of  the  arithmetic  prob- 
lem, something  to  be  found,  something  given,  a  solution, 
and  the  checking  up.  Only  in  this  case  the  solution  was 
found  by  asking  some  one  else,  and  the  checking  up  was 
done  by  watching  the  plants  to  see  if  the  solution  (the  kill- 
ing of  each  bug)  was  successful. 

Case  4.  The  first  born,  aged  sixty  days,  cries  at  2  A.  M. 
The  fond  and  devoted  parents  rise  to  stop  the  wails.  Per- 
haps it  is  cold.  Rapid  searching  determines  that  it  is  warm. 
Perhaps  the  colic?-  No,  its  feet  are  warm.  Maybe  a  pin. 
No,  only  safety  pins  are  used.  Can  it  be  lonesome  ?  Happy 
thought.  The  male  parent  takes  it  in  his  arms  and  walks 
the  floor.  "The  tumult  and  the  shouting  dies" — the  baby 
sleeps. 

Here  we  have  again  a  problem,  little  knowledge,  sev- 
eral guesses  at  a  solution  and  a  checking  up.  Probably 
later  better  solutions  and  more  accurate  theories  will  be 
applied.  But  for  the  present  walking  the  floor  is  a  satis- 
factory solution. 

Case  5.  The  following  extract  gives  a  graphic  account 
of  a  state  of  mind  that  is  too  common  in  our  schools.  It 
is  taken  from  a  school  story  called  The  Rickerton  Medal, 
which  is  the  work  of  a  practical  teacher.  The  scene  is  a 


192  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

class  room  in  an  elementary  school.  Mr.  Leckie,  the  teacher 
of  the  class  (Standard  VI,  average  age  about  13),  pro- 
pounds a  problem  in  arithmetic: 

"If  7  and  2  make  10,  what  will  12  and  6  make?" 

A  look  of  dismay  passed  over  the  seventy-odd  faces  as 
this  apparently  meaningless  question  was  read.  Everybody 
knew  that  7  and  2  didn't  make  10,  so  that  was  nonsense. 
But  even  if  it  had  been  sense,  what  was  the  use  of  it? 
For  everybody  knew  that  12  and  6  make  18 — nobody  needed 
the  help  of  7  and  2  to  find  that  out.  Nobody  knew  exactly 
how  to  treat  this  strange  problem. 

Fat  John  Thompson  from  the  foot  of  the  class  raised 
his  hand,  and  when  asked  what  he  wanted,  said : 

"Please,  sir,  what  rule  is  it?" 

Mr.  Leckie  smiled  as  he  answered: 

"You  must  find  out  for  yourself,  John ;  what  rule  do  you 
think  it  is,  now?" 

But  John  had  nothing  to  say  to  such  foolishness.  "What's 
the  use  of  giving  a  fellow  a  count1  and  not  telling  him 
the  rule?" — that's  what  John  thought.-  But  as  it  was  a 
heinous  sin  in  Standard  VI  to  have  "nothing  on  your  slate," 
John  proceeded  to  put  down  various  figures  and  dots,  and 
then  went  on  to  divide  and  multiply  them  time  about. 

He  first  multiplied  7  by  2  and  got  14.  Then,  dividing  by 
10,  he  got  i§.  But  he  didn't  like  the  look  of  this.  He 
hated  fractions.  Besides,  he  knew  from  bitter  experience 
that  whenever  he  had  fractions  in  his  answer  he  was  wrong. 

So  he  multiplied  14  by  10  this  time,  and  got  140,  which 
certainly  looked  much  better,  and  caused  less  trouble. 

He  thought  that  12  ought  to  come  out  of  140;  they  both 
looked  nice,  easy,  good-natured  numbers.  But  when  he 

1  Scottish :  any  kind  of  arithmetical  exercise  in  school  work. 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  193 

found  that  the  answer  was  1 1  and  8  over,  he  knew  that  he 
had  not  yet  hit  upon  the  right  tack ;  for  remainders  are  just 
as  fatal  in  answers  as  fractions.  At  least,  that  was  John's 
experience. 

Accordingly,  he  rubbed  out  this  false  move  into  division, 
and  fell  back  upon  multiplication.  When  he  had  multiplied 
140  by  12,  he  found  the  answer  1680,  which  seemed  to  him 
a  fine,  big,  sensible  sort  of  answer. 

Then  he  began  to  wonder  whether  division  was  going  to 
work  this  time.  As  he  proceeded  to  divide  by  6,  his  eyes 
gleamed  with  triumph. 

"Six  into  48,  8  an'  nothin'  over,  -2-8-0  an'  no  remainder. 
I've  got  it!" 

Here  poor  John  fell  back  in  his  seat,  folded  his  arms, 
and  waited  patiently  till  his  less  fortunate  fellows  had 

finished. 

***** 

James1  knew  from  the  "if"  at  the  beginning  of  the  ques- 
tion that  it  must  be  proportion ;  and  since  there  were  five 
terms,  it  must  be  compound  proportion.  That  was  all  plain 
enough,  so  he  started,  following  his  rule. 

"If  7  gives  10,  what  will  2  give? — less." 

Then  he  put  down 
7:2:110: 

"Then  if  12  gives  10,  what  will  6  give*? — again  less."    So 
he  put  down  this  time 
12:6 

Then  he  went  on  loyally  to  follow  his  rule :  multiplied  all 
the  second  and  third  terms  together,  and  duly  divided  by  the 
product  of  the  first  two  terms.  This  gave  the  very  unprom- 
ising answer  I  3/7. 

1  The  clever  boy  of  the  class. 


194  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

He  did  not  at  all  see  how  12  and  6  could  make  i  3/7. 
But  that  wasn't  his  lookout.     Let  the  rule  see  to  that."1 

Dewey2  quotes  a  more  complicated  case:  "In  washing 
tumblers  in  hot  soapsuds  and  placing  them  mouth  down- 
ward on  a  plate,  bubbles  appeared  on  the  outside  of  the 
mouth  of  the  tumblers  and  then  went  inside.  Why?  The 
presence  of  bubbles  suggests  air,  which  I  note  must  come 
from  inside  the  tumbler.  I  see  that  the  soapy  water  on 
the  plate  prevents  escape  of  the  air  save  as  it  may  be 
caught  in  bubbles.  But  why  should  air  leave  the  tumbler? 
There  was  no  substance  entering  to  force  it  out.  It  must 
have  expanded.  It  expands  by  increase  of  heat  or  by  de- 
crease of  pressure,  or  by  both.  Could  the  air  have  become 
heated  after  the  tumbler  was  taken  from  the  hot  suds? 
Clearly  not  the  air  that  was  already  entangled  in  the  water. 
If  heated  air  was  the  cause,  cold  air  must  have  entered  in 
transferring  the  tumblers  from  the  suds  to  the  plate.  I 
test  to  see  if  this  supposition  is  true  by  taking  several  more 
tumblers  out.  Some  I  shake  so  as  to  make  sure  of  entrap- 
ping cold  air  in  them.  Some  I  take  out  holding  mouth 
downward  in  order  to  prevent  cold  air  from  entering.  Bub- 
bles appear  on  the  outside  of  every  one  of  the  former 
and  on  none  of  the  latter.  I  must  be  right  in  my  inference. 
Air  from  the  outside  must  have  been  expanded  by  the 
heat  of  the  tumbler,  which  explains  the  appearance  of  the 
bubbles  on  the  outside. 

"But  why  do  they  then  go  inside?  Cold  contracts.  The 
tumbler  cooled  and  also  the  air  inside  it.  Tension  was  re- 
moved, and  hence  bubbles  appeared  inside.  To  be  sure  of 
this,  I  test  by  placing  a  cup  of  ice  on  the  tumbler  while 
the  bubbles  are  still  forming  outside.  They  soon  reverse." 

1  Adams,  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching,  pp.  176-8. 

2  How  We  Think,  pp.  70-71. 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  195 

Case  7.  Goodyear,  the  discoverer  of  the  process  of 
vulcanizing  rubber,  worked  for  ten  years  before  he  struck 
upon  the  complete  process. 

We  are  told  that  he  went  to  New  York  to  dispose  of  an 
idea  for  a  life  preserver  and  while  there  he  was  advised  by 
a  rubber  merchant  that  if  some  way  could  be  found  for 
making  raw  rubber  withstand  both  heat  and  cold  so  that  it 
would  not  be  sticky  in  warm  weather  nor  would  crack  in 
cold  weather,  there  was  a  fortune  to  be  made.  He  had 
little  knowledge  of  mechanics  or  chemistry  but  was  never- 
theless interested  in  the  problem,  and  upon  his  return  he  set 
to  work  to  discover  the  process. 

There  is  great  human  interest  in  his  story,  in  his  priva- 
tions and  poverty  inflicted  upon  himself  and  his  family 
while  the  idea  obsessed  him.  This  we  cannot  describe  here. 
But  the  main  features  of  his  solution  can  be  given. 

His  biographer  states  that  he  first  tried  mechanical  mixing 
and  kneading  of  the  warmed  raw  product,  but  it  still  re- 
mained sticky  in  warm  weather.  Then  he  tried  mixing 
various  chemicals,  such  as  magnesia,  with  the  raw  material 
while  kneading.  This  likewise  proved  unsuccessful.  Then 
he  tried  boiling  this  magnesia  mixture  in  quicklime  and 
water.  This  worked  for  a  while  under  his  limited  tests 
but  it  was  found  that  any  acid,  even  of  very  slight  strength, 
such  as  apple  juice,  produced  the  troublesome  stickiness. 
He  next  tried  mixing  it  with  nitric  acid,  and  his  hopes  were 
raised  so  high  that  he  tried  to  get,  and  indeed  secured,  a 
government  contract  for  making  rubber  mailbags.  Here, 
however,  he  found  that  the  heavy  material  needed  for  the 
bags  broke,  cracked,  and  still  produced  stickiness.  This 
almost  completely  discouraged  him,  but  he  continued,  and 
among  many  other  things  tried  kneading  sulphur  into  the 
raw  product.  His  results  were  better  but  not  successful. 


196  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  final  idea  came  by  accident  one  day,  when  in  talking 
to  a  friend  by  the  kitchen  stove,  he  let  the  piece  he  was 
displaying  drop  on  the  stove  lid.  As  soon  as  he  could  he 
scraped  it  off,  but  not  soon  enough  to  keep  him  from  seeing 
that  the  heat,  combined  with  the  mixing  of  the  sulphur,  had 
added  the  necessary  factor.  After  a  time  he  perfected 
conditions  for  heating,  and  to-day  we  have  vulcanized  rub- 
ber, though  the  inventor,  with  his  meagre  business  ability, 
reaped  a  very  slight  reward  for  the  privation  and  destitution 
of  his  family  and  himself. 

These  seven  instances  have  been  given  to  show  con- 
cretely the  processes  by  which  control  is  reached.  Sum- 
marized, there  are  three  main  steps  in  the  process :  the  recog- 
nition of  a  problem,  an  attempt  at  its  solution,  and  testing 
it  out.  The  first  is  called  defining  the  problem,  the  second 
forming  hypotheses,  and  the  third  verification. 

A  very  simple  process,  this,  in  the  abstract,  but  frequently 
difficult  to  apply  successfully  to  concrete  situations. 

Defining  the  Problem. — When  a  problem  faces  a  person 
it  is  frequently  indefinite.  He  knows  that  something  is 
wrong,  but  before  he  can  go  ahead  intelligently  he  must 
know  more  exactly  just  what  is  the  problem.  In  the  arith- 
metic problem  above,  the  thing  desired  is  to  find  how  much 
U.  P.  stock  can  be  bought ;  but  more  exactly  it  is  to  find  the 
amount  of  U.  P.  stock  that  can  be  bought  for  U.  S.  Steel, 
with  brokerage  on  both  transactions.  In  the  algebra  ex- 
ample the  problem  is  to  solve  the  equation,  but  it  narrows 
down  to  the  problem  of  factoring.  The  problem  of  the 
tomato  plants  was  to  keep  them  from  being  stripped ;  more 
definitely  it  was  to  get  rid  of  the  bugs,  still  more  definitely 
how  to  exterminate  them,  and  later  how  to  knock  them  off 
and  kill  them.  The  parents  with  the  baby  had  the  problem 
of  quieting  it,  more  definitely,  they  wished  to  know  what 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  IQ7 

was  the  trouble,  and  finally  by  chance  they  hit  on  a  method 
without  ever  knowing  quite  what  the  trouble  was.  Adams' 
boys  had  not  the  least  conception  of  any  problem.  They 
worked  out  blindly  till  they  reached  something.  Dewey's 
student  had  the  problem  of  explaining  the  presence  of  bub- 
bles, then  of  bubbles  inside  and  outside.  Goodyear  had 
the  big  problem  of  making  rubber  commercially  usable,  more 
definitely  he  had  to  determine  how  to  keep  it  from  being 
sticky  and  cracking. 

Except  in  the  very  simplest  cases  this  process  of  defini- 
tion is  gradual.  To  an  experienced  doctor  the  diagnosis  of 
many  diseases  is  easy.  He  enters  the  room,  sees  the  tem- 
perature, takes  a  pulse",  feels  the  painful  parts,  and  at  once 
says,  "It  is  so  and  so."  An  inexperienced  doctor  has  to 
work  it  down  point  by  point  until  he  knows  exactly  what 
is  wrong.  The  amateur  whose  motor  stops  knows  first,  that 
something  is  wrong,  and  his  chief  trouble  is  in  locating 
the  difficulty.  An  expert  may  look  it  over  and  say  at  once : 
"You  had  better  put  in  your  spark  plug."  If  a  boy  is 
troublesome  in  school,  the  teacher's  difficulty  is  to  know  just 
wrhat  is  wrong.  Is  this  nervousness,  bad  air,  poor  health, 
or  just  meanness? 

The  Hypothesis. — When  the  problem  is  being  located 
guesses  are  beginning  to  form.  In  the  arithmetic  problem, 
the  pupil  is  figuring  out  the  method  of  handling  it.  So  in 
the  algebra  question.  When  my  wife  mentions  stripped 
•tomato  vines  I  at  once  think:  "Bugs — how  shall  I  kill 
them ;  surely  by  poison."  But  I  have  heard  that  there  is  one 
kind  of  bug  that  ordinary  poisons  will  not  kill.  So  I  dis- 
card that  hypothesis  and  consult  the  expert.  When  the  baby 
cries  the  parents  think  of  a  hot-water  bottle,  or  of  putting- 
it  on  its  stomach  and  dandling  it  up  and  down  on  parental 
knees,  or  running  over  the  clothes  to  find  misplaced  pins, 


198  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

or  of  walking  up  and  down.     These  all  ^naturally  suggest 
themselves. 

How  we  happen  to  hit  upon  these  hypotheses  is  not 
.  clearly  known.  We  may  say  we  make  associations  but  that 
explains  nothing.  If  we  had  a  rule  for  reaching  these 
guesses  easily  and  unfailingly,  inventors  would  starve  more 
extensively  even  than  they  used  to,  for  every  man  could 
be  made  original  by  training. 

Some  people  have  a  knack  for  making  wise  guesses. 
Others,  by  effort,  can  never  do  it.  But  for  the  ordinary 
person,  pupil  or  adult,  there  is  no  royal  road.  We  have 
just  to  sit  down  and  think  about  it.  Miller  says:  "All 
that  we  can  do  in  the  way  of  controlling  this  part  of  the 
thinking  process  is  to  familiarize  ourselves  so  .thoroughly 
writh  all  the  facts  relevant  to  our  problem  that  we  are  in  the 
mental  mood,  or  attitude,  for  the  associative  mechanism  to 
work  freely  through  all  the  material,  and  to  suggest  subtle 
relationships  which  we  have  not  hitherto  suspected,  or  to 
bring  out  into  reflective  consciousness  connections  which  had 
hitherto  been  vague  and  unreflective."  We  have  to  go  over 
and  over  the  material,  try  out  any  likely  guess,  and  perhaps 
some  time  the  right  hypothesis  will  pop  out  of  nowhere. 
Goodyear,  for  instance,  by  accident  let  the  rubber  fall  on 
the  stove.  Archimedes,  we  are  told,  took  a  swim.  The 
mind  bent  on  solving  a  problem  is  no  respecter  of  places. 
It  keeps  turning  things  over  and  over. 

Our  trouble  as  teachers  is  that  in  90  per  cent  of  the  cases ' 
we  do  not  let  the  pupils  do  enough  thoughtful  guessing. 
We  are  not  exactly  anxious  to  show  off  our  knowledge  to 
the  pupils.  It  is  not  really  that  we  are  so  good-hearted 
that  we  hate  to  see  them  worried  or  confused.  This  is 
largely  because  we  are  in  a  rut  made  by  countless  genera- 
tions of  book  teachers  who  have  assumed  that  the  human 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  199 

mind  is  a  barrel  inco  which  should  be  dropped  little  portions 
of  learning.  But  no  pupil  ever  amounts  to  much  who 
does  not  wrestle  with  unsolved  problems.  Fortunately  for 
the  generations  as  they  rise,  they  get  a  good  deal  of  prac- 
tice in  this  outside  of  school.  But  is  it  not  a  shame  that 
the  school  which  is  manned  with  experts  in  education  should 
so  completely  neglect  this  phase  of  human  originality? 

Good  hypotheses  may  be  found  on  the  first  trial.  In  the 
arithmetic  question,  if  the  pupil  has  worked  a  good  many 
similar  problems  he  may  hit  upon  the  right  solution  at 
once.  The  more  familiar  a  student  is  with  his  problem 
the  more  likely  is  he  to  judge  right  the  very  first  time. 

But  again  the  correct  trial  may  be  the  last  of  a  series. 
Goodyear  worked  for  ten  years  to  achieve  the  guess  that 
made  him  a  benefactor  to  the  race.  Many  a  boy  has  worked 
for  days  upon  a  problem  of  geometry,  trying  first  one  and 
then  another,  before  getting  the  correct  solution.1 

In  Scott's  book  on  Social  Education,  mentioned  above, 
in  Chapter  VIII,  we  have  a  fine  set  of  concrete  examples 
showing  how  children  work  out  their  own  solutions.  For 
a  certain  period  in  the  day,  the  pupils  were  allowed  to 
select  their  own  problems  and  to  work  them  out  in  groups 
with  the  understanding  that  what  they  did  was  their  own 
affair,  and  that  they  should  call  in  the-  teacher  only  when 
it  was  absolutely  necessary.  It  would  be  impossible  to  give 
an  adequate  description  of  the  work  in  our  few  pages.  But 
references  for  rlass  reading  are  given  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 

Verification. — How  do  we  determine  which  is  the  cor- 
rect hypothesis"?  In  mathematics  we  check,  and  if  this 
process  is  satisfactory  we  consider  the  solution  reached  to 

1  In  ordinary  language  the  correct  hypothesis  when  carried  out  and 
put  into  practice  is  called  the  solution. 


200  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

be  correct.  This  is  a  highly  intellectualized  and  exact  method 
of  determination.  There  is  no  possible  loophole  for  error 
to  creep  in  if  the  method  is  correctly  used. 

In  certain  other  exact  work  with  concrete  materials,  such 
as  in  cabinet  making,  verification  is  made  by  seeing  if  the 
apparatus  works.  A  plan  for  making  a  joint  is  supposed 
to  be  correct  if  the  joint  does  all  that  is  expected  of  it. 
In  a  rough  and  tumble  political  debate  a  picturesque  old 
gentleman  discredited  his  opponent  as  follows :  "My  learned 
opponent  has  brilliant  ideas  other  than  those  he  is  now 
giving  voice  to.  Once  he  made  a  mouse-trap,  by  scientific 
methods;  it  looked  pretty;  it  was  pretty;  it  was  painted 
and  made  out  of  first-class  wire — a  perfect  mouse-trap — 
with  one  exception.  He  never  could  persuade  a  mouse  to 
go  inside." 

Again,  in  cooking,  verification  is  determined  to  a  great 
extent  by  palatability.  If  the  bread  tastes  good,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  well  made.  The  cook  in  trying  to  make  a  new 
dish  makes  guesses  as  to  amounts  of  ingredients,  heat,  and 
time  of  cooking.  It  is  a  success  if  it  pleases  her  guests.  So 
with  painting  and  all  forms  of  aesthetic  problems,  the  solu- 
tion is  correct  if  it  pleases  the  taste  of  those  who  know. 
Color  schemes  are  hypotheses — very  much'  so.  And  they 
are  successful  if  when  carried  out  they  produce  a  pleasing 
effect. 

These  standards  of  taste  are  not  so  rigorous  as  mathe- 
matical standards ;  for  the  old  proverb  still  holds  true :  De 
gustibus  non  disputandwn  est — one  can  never  argue  about 
tastes.  Hence  the  opinion  of  experts  in  any  line  is  accepted 
as  the  court  of  last  resort. 

In  more  abstract  fields,  verification  consists  in  lack  of 
contradiction.  When  a  scholar  reaches  a  conclusion,  i.  e., 
arrives  at  what  he  thinks  is  a  good  hypothesis,  he  stops  and 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  2OI 

tries  it  out  in  every  possible  case  to  see  if  there  is  anything 
that  contradicts  it.  Darwin  says,  in  his  autobiography,  that 
his  attention  was  always  riveted  by  what  seemed  to  be  a 
possible  objection  to  his  theories.  It  is  in  this  way  that  a 
careful  student  checks  up  his  work.  We  are  told  that 
Newton  laid  aside  his  theory  of  gravitation  because  certain 
measurements  about  the  moon  contradicted  it.  Twenty 
years  later  other  investigators  made  more  accurate  measure- 
ments which  coincided  with  Newton's  theories,  and,  this 
final  objection  being  removed,  he  made  his  theory  known  to 
the  world. 

In  seejcing  for  possible  objections,  the  scholar  will  not 
wait  for  them  to  come.  He  goes  out  after  them.  He  seeks 
for  experimental  corroboration — as  in  the  case  cited  above, 
when  the  student  placed  ice  on  the  top  of  the  glass. 

Pupils,  however,  seldom  go  to  these  lengths.  If  the 
hypothesis  seems  to  satisfy  all  conditions  lying  around,  they 
rest  contented.  Adams'  boy,  who  tried  the  rule  of  three, 
got  an  answer  that  he  could  not  understand,  as  he  said 
"the  book  could  look  out  for  that." 

It  is,  therefore,  the  pleasant  task  of  the  teacher  to  bring 
up  objections  which  lie  within  the  experience  of  the  pupils, 
for  if  the  investigation  is  worth  while  to  the  pupil  the 
objection  will  set  him  to  work  again.  And  pupils  should 
be  encouraged  to  take  the  initiative  in  searching  for  reason- 
able objections. 

Verification  and  Problems. — One  of  the  best  ways  of 
making  pupils  think  is  to  have  them  verify  their  results. 
This  is,  again,  the  value  of  Spencer's  "natural  consequences" 
idea.  In  the  commission  problem  on  p.  177,  above,  the 
pupils  carried  out  their  method  to  the  end  and  found  it  to 
be  absurd.  The  check  for  arithmetic  problems  makes  the 
pupils  go  over  the  work  again  with  care.  Let  practice 


* 
202  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

teachers  try  out  their  principles  upon  live  pupils  and  they 
begin  for  the  first  time  to  understand  the  problems  and 
methods  of  teaching.  Wild  guessing  by  an  erratic  pupil  is 
steadied  by  requiring  him  to  carry  out  his  guesses  to  verify 
them. 

Appreciation. — At  this  point,  the  control  of  the  value 
now  being  completed,  appreciation  enters.  When  an  opera- 
tion of  importance  is  completed  and  found  to  be  satisfactory 
by  all  the  tests,  experience  stops  and  appreciates.  If  it  is 
satisfactory  we  go  back  over  it,  perhaps,  but  certainly  we 
enjoy  it  actively.  The  pupils  should,  likewise,  be  encouraged 
in  subtle  ways  to  dwell  upon  a  good  piece  of  work  for  a 
while.  It  is  an  excellent  thing  to  talk  it  over  a  bit,  with 
little  fear  of  making  egotists  out  of  them;  for  the  next 
minute  they  will  be  running  into  some  difficulty  that  will 
steady  them. 

Data. — In  all  this  process  of  reasoning. data  have  been 
assumed.  Everybody  comes  to  a  problem  with  all  his  past 
experience.  He  also  has  certain  factors  in  the  situation 
itself,  which,  taken  together,  is  all  he  has  at  hand  to  help 
him  make  his  guess. 

Now,  some  people  have  had  much  relevant  experience 
when  they  approach  a  particular  problem ;  others  have  little. 
In  the  mathematical  examples,  so  frequently  referred  to,  the 
pupils  have  a  good  deal  of  definite  relevant  experience  and 
data.  In  the  case  of  the  tomato  pests  the  amateur  had  little 
data,  but  the  expert  had  much.  The  parents  of  the  crying 
baby  had  very  little  definite  information.  Adams'  boys  had 
little  that  they  could  apply.  Dewey's  student  was  pretty 
well  trained.  Goodyear  had  very  little  at  the  beginning,  but 
this  steadily  grew.  It' is  impossible  for  any  person  to  write 
down  or  state  all  the  possible  data  he  has  at  hand. 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  203 

Summary. — For  the  control  of  values  we  have  systems 
of  instincts  and  reflexes,  habits,  ideas,  facts  and  principles, 
ideals,  prejudices,  tastes  and  attitudes.  These  are  acquired 
(except  the  first  two)  inTesponse  to  needs  and  as  the  solu- 
tion of  problems.  In  this  process  of  solution  the  problem 
is  located,  data  moved  into  the  field  of  action,  guesses  made 
at  solution,  and  eliminated  or  accepted  after  verification. 
In  this  way  the  mind  works  normally  and  in  this  way  the 
pupil  should  be  taught. 

Series  of  Problems. — One  important  fact  should  be 
brought  out,  in  conclusion.  There  is  not  merely  one  prob- 
lem in  a  situation ;  there  are  hundreds.  One  follows  the 
other  till  the  whole  is  completed.  Two  illustrations  will 
make  this  clear.  The  first  is  quoted  from  a  student's  paper 
and  analyzes  a  problem  met  outside  school.  The  main 
problem  was,  "How  to  establish  a  church  which  we  and 
other  children  would  truly  like  to  attend?"  The  following 
series  arose: 

1 I )  "Were  other  children  interested  in  this  ?    How  could 
we  interest  the  children  of  our  own  neighborhood  in  it? 
We  found  that  several  of  them  were,  that  a  number  of 
them  would  come  out  of  curiosity,  that  a  number  of  them 
did  not  like  to  go  to  church  with  the  grown-ups,  and  for 
one  reason  or  another  some  ten  or  twelve  promised  to  come 
at  first. 

(2)  "Where  and  when  should  we  hold  services?     We 
interested  our  parents,  and  my  mother  donated  a  back  room 
^pstairs,  on  the  condition  that  we  should  fix  it  up.  We  would 
hold  services  Sunday  morning,  as  that  seemed  to  be  the 
most  convenient  time. 

(3)  "What  sort  o-f  music  should  we  have?     We  pur- 
chased an  old  organ  from  the  parents  of  one  of  the  children. 


204  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

How  should  we  pay  for  it?  After  careful  thought  we 
solved  this  problem  by  giving  several  magic  lantern  shows 
at  our  house,  charging  a  penny  admission. 

(4)  "Who   should  be  preacher?     My  brother  seemed 
most  fitted  on  account  of  his  earnestness,  his  interest,  and 
his  being  some  two  years  older  than  the  rest  of  us. 

(5)  "Who  should  be  choir  and  who  congregation?    A 
very  serious  problem.    It  was  decided  to  alternate,  each  half 
should  be  choir  one  Sunday  and  congregation  the  next. 

(6)  "Where  should  we  get  our  seats?    The  problem  of 
constructing  some  rough  wooden  ones  arose,  but  instead  we 
obtained  some  straight  chairs  (each  one  obtained  his  own 
seat)  and  at  our  house  we  provided  a  few  for  the  visitors. 

(7)  "Problem  of  constructing  a  platform  for  the  minis- 
ter.   Each  of  us  helped.    Minor  problems  arose  here,  such  as 
joining  the  boards  together,  width  of  platform,  carpeting,  etc. 

(8)  "Problem  of  choosing  officers  of  the  church,  treas- 
urer, ushers,  etc.     This  was  solved  by  appointing  a  com- 
mittee who  should  select  them. 

(9)  "Further  problems  of  maintaining  interest  in  the 
church,  learning  to  pray  'in  public/  of  learning  hymns,  etc., 
were  disposed  of  in  similar  ways." 

In  school,  likewise,  the  same  process  occurs.  We  find  it 
in  such  a  simple  problem  in  arithmetic  as  the  following: 
Find  the  cost  of  12  dozen  oranges  at  50  cents  a  dozen. 
The  following  problems  arise:  (i)  What  is  to  be  found? 
Cost  of  12  dozen  oranges.  (2)  What  is  given?  (a)  F2 
dozen;  (b)  50  cents  a  dozen.  (3)  How  find  the  cost? 
Multiply  12  by  50  cents.  (4)  How  do  this?  From  multi- 
plication fact,  12  X  50  =  600,  cost  is  $6.00.  Again,  in  his- 
tory-, De  Garmo  says,1  "For  instance,  in  the  case,  of  the 

1  Processes  of  Instruction,  p.  82. 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  205 

frontier  the  main  problem  before  the  class  would  be  to  deter- 
mine the  influence  of  the  frontier  in  American  History. 
About  this  problem  will  cluster  the  gathering  of  historical 
facts,  the  influences  that  have  a  causal  power,  and  the 
various  channels  through  which  these  causes  produce  their 
diverse  effects.  In  other  words,  the  main  problem  will 
break  up  into  a  number  of  subsidiary  ones,  as,  for  example, 
what  influence  had  the  trapper's  frontier  upon  that  of  the 
rancher?  What  modifying  influences  had  the  settlements 
immediately  beyond  the  'fall  line'  upon  those  below  it?  How 
did  the  frontier  regions  control  legislation  for  internal  im- 
provements ?  for  the  distribution  of  the  public  domain  ?  for 
protection  to  new  industries,  etc.?" 

Here,  again,  the  teacher  may  help  materially-  by  having 
the  children  stop  and  think.  To  repeat,  one  great  danger 
is  that  the  teacher  is  likely  to  make  the  steps  so  easy  and 
so  much  alike  that  the  pupil  is  busy  all  the  time  solving 
little  problems  and  is  never  brought  face  to  face  with  those 
that  would  baffle  him  for  the  time  being.  It  is,  of  course, 
just  as  disastrous  never  to  help  him.  The  'only  point  in- 
sisted upon  here  is  that  he  be  left  to  think  for  himself  for  a 
while,  and  then,  when  he  cannot  discover  the  difficulty  or 
find  an  hypothesis,  a  hint  may  be  given. 

REFERENCES   FOR   CLASS    READING 

Creighton,  An  Introductory  Logic,  pp.  230-240. 
De  Garmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  II 
pp.  28-32. 

Dewey,  How  We  Think,  pp.  68-78. 

Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  26-36. 

Miller,  Psychology  of  Thinking,  pp.  260-267. 

Scott,  Social  Education,  pp.  102-130,  185-193,  and  others. 


^506  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  ideals  and  show  how  each  affects 
conduct. 

2.  Of  what  use  is  knowledge?     What  is  the  fallacy  in 
teaching  it  as  an  end  in  itself?     Find  references  to  this  in 
earlier  chapters. 

3.  To  what  extent  is  it  true  that  we  see  only  what  we 
want  to  see?    Why  is  it  hard  to  believe  good  of  an  enemy, 
or  to  recognize  that  adverse  decisions  of  an  umpire  are  fair? 

4.  Name  ten  good  prejudices.    Justify  each. 

5.  Give  five  examples  of  the  deficiency  of  problems  in 
school  work ;  five  from  out  of  school  life. 

6.  Give  five  cases  in  which   you  have  made   several 
hypotheses  before  reaching  the  solution  of  a  problem. 

7.  It  is  objected  that  children  will  waste  time  if  allowed 
to  experiment  on  problems,  and  that  the  year's  work  cannot 
be  covered.  What  are  your  answers  to  this  objection,  if  you 
have  any? 

8.  Can  Scott's  examples  be  applied  to  regular  school 
work?    Explain  your  answer  in  detail.  ^ 

9.  Give  five  examples  of  the  use  of  verification  in  each 
of   the    following:     writing,    geography,    spelling,   history, 
physiology,    and    drawing.     Select    individual    cases    from 
your  own  experience  as  teacher  or  as  pupil. 

10.  Select  a  complex  problem  in  school  work  and  show 
how  it  breaks  up  into  a  series  of  problems  before  it  is  all 
solved. 

11.  Give  five  cases  of  where  pupils  have  not  verified 
correctly,  and  of  where  the  teacher  might  then  have  driven 
them  into  a  corner  by  bringing  out  the  weakness  in  their 
process  of  verification. 


CONTROL  OF  VALUES  207 

12.  Collect  data  and  tabulate  them  for  the  solution  of 
this  problem :  Which  of  the  phases,  problem,  data,  hypoth- 
esis and  verification  comes  first?  Can  you  give  them  any 
definite  order?  Illustrate, 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  AND  LOGICAL  OKGANIZATION 

SECTION  i.     INTRODUCTORY 

In  the  last  chapter  we  analyzed  the  process  of  reaching 
the  solution  of  a  problem. 

In  many  of  the  examples  it  was  clear  that  many  ste'~s 
were  taken  which  would  be  unnecessary  the  next  time  the 
solution  was  sought.  Goodyear  tried  many  plans  before 
he  found  the  right  one,  and,  after  finding  it,  he  spent  much 
time  perfecting  it.  Now,  when  people  make  vulcanized 
rubber  they  use  his  perfected  plan,  not  his  various  attempts. 
Probably  the  average  rubber  goods  manufacturer  does  not 
know  about  these  earlier  attempts.  When  tomato  bugs 
worry  again  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  think  of  poison  or 
ask  the  neighbors.  The  amateur  will  go  out  to  the  garden 
and  knock  them  off  with  a  paddle. 

These  first  tortuous,  uncertain  gropings  may  be  called 
"psychological,"  for  want  of  a  better  term.  The  later  per- 
fected and  polished  organization  may  be  appropriately  called 
"logical,"  meaning  by  that  a  perfected  structure. 

For  some  years  the  psychological  point  of  view  has  been 
vigorously  seeking  a  foothold  and  has  demonstrated  its 
usefulness  in  a  number  of  ways.  A  few  of  these  will  be 
taken  up  in  this  chapter  and  the  next. 

SECTION  2.     THE  DAILY  LESSON 

In  an  earlier  chapter  the  structure  of  subject-matter  was 
discussed,  and  at  that  time  it  was  pointed  out  that  the 

208 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION  209 

structure  should  be  logically  arranged  and  in  such  a  way 
as  to  fulfill  its  function.  At  this  point  the  relation  of  the 
logical  to  the  psychological  order  of  the  subject-matter  may 
be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  question, — Should  the 
recitation  follow,  point  by  point,  the  logical  outline  of  the 
day's  lesson  (the  structure)  ? 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  lay  down  a  definite  rule. 
But  if  the  logical  outline  is  followed  closely  there  is  little 
opportunity  for  any  original  thinking  by  the  pupil.  For  if 
it  be  true  that  the  adult  who  first  created  the  outline  did 
so  after  experimentation,  it  is  evident  that  a  child  could 
not  construct  it  without  a  similar  tortuous  method.  And 
hence,  if  the  child. is  to  be  allowed  the  chance  to  think  it 
out  for  himself,  we  need  not  be  surprised  if  the  logical 
outline  is  not  followed.1 

Illustration. — The  following  lesson  was  organized  and 
taught  to  a  class  of  second  year  students  in  the  high  school, 
in  order  to  get  a  concrete  illustration  of  the  fact  that  in 
developing  a  lesson,  fairly  well  organized  from  the  logical 
standpoint,  a  teacher  may  not  follow  the  logical  outline 
step  by  step,  if  the  pupils  are  allowed  a  reasonable  amount 
of  initiative  and  self-direction  in  attacking  the 'problem. 
This  particular  subject-matter  is  composed  of  a  number  of 
topics  which  are  more  or  less  disconnected,  and  do  not  each 
grow  out  of  the  preceding. 

It  was  taught  at  the  beginning  of  a  study  of  English 
history  in  order  that  the  students  might  become  acquainted 
with  the  geographical  conditions  of  the  British  Isles,  and 
might  get  some  idea  of  their  outstanding  local  and  inter- 
national characteristics.  The  subject-matter  to  be  taught 

1  For  an  excellent  philosophical  discussion  of  this  whole  matter, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Dewey,  The  Child  and  the  Curriculum, 
University  of  Chicago  Press. 


2io  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

was  organized  by  the  teacher  in  the  following  relatively 
loose  way. 

Function  of  subject-matter  is  to  solve  the  following  prob- 
lem :  What  is  the  relation  between  the  geographical  condi- 
tions and  the  navy,  industries,  wealth,  cities,  and  national 
life  of  the  British  Isles  ? 

Structure  of  subject-matter.  The  solution  is  made  up  of 
the  following  contributions  :  — 

I.  Geographical  conditions : 

1.  Islands  (isolated  from  mainland), — 

•  a.     in  size  120,000  sq.  mi.  =  (Missouri  and  Arkansas). 

b.  in  population  40  million  =  (Missouri  and  Arkan- 
sas, -\-  35  million). 

c.  many  excellent  harbors  on  coast  line. 

2.  Mountainous  in  parts  and  level  in  parts. 

3.  Great  deposits  of  iron  and  coal  close  together. 

II.  Items  affected  by  geographical  conditions : 

1.  Navy  largest  in  the  world — kept  as  large  as  any  two 
others,  necessary  for  protection, — 

a.  from  invasion — I,  I. 

b.  from  starvation — I,  I,  a,  and  b. 

c.  for  shipping— I,  I,  c,  and  II,  2,  c,  and  d. 

2.  Industries, — 

a.  fishing — I,  i. 

b.  •  agriculture  (small  for  dense  population) — I,  2. 

c.  shipping  (greatest  in  the  world) — I,  i,  c,  and  II, 

2,    d. 

d.  manufacturing    (second    in    quantity   only    to    the 
United  States)  great  because  of  shipping  facilities, 
low  wages,  free  trade,  and  skilled  workmen,  cheap 
fuel. — I,  i,  a,  and  I,  3. 

3.  Wealth  greatest  per  capita  in   the  world.     Money 
invested  all  over  the  world — II,  2,  c,  and  d. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION  2II 

4.  Cities — I,  i,  c.     In  England,  London  and  Liverpool; 
in   Scotland,   Glasgow  and   Edinburgh;    in   Ireland, 
Belfast  and  Dublin. 

5.  Nationalities — a.     Wales,  because  of  mountains. 

b.  Scotland,    Lowlands    of     English 
origin.      Highlands    different    be- 
cause of  mountains. 

c.  England. 

d.  Ireland,     because     of     being     an 
island. 

The  following  report  was  given  by  the  teacher:  "I  kept 
the  outline  in  mind,  but  proceeded  to  let  the  pupils  attack 
the  problem  in  whatever  way  occurred  to  them.  After  a 
short  conversation  about  the  study  of  English  history  and 
its  value  for  American  people,  I  unrolled  the  map,  and  after 
they  had  looked  at  it  for  a  moment  gave  them  the  direct 
problem,  'What  are  the  things  that  make  the  history  of  one 
nation  different  from  that  of  another?'  I  expected  to  receive 
two  replies,  'The  people  of  the  nation,'  and  'The  geograph- 
ical conditions/  The  pupils  gave  the  second  one  first,  and 
that  being  the  point  I  was  after,  I  let  the  other  go.  I  had 
them  illustrate  this  from  any  source  they  could,  and  they 
spoke  of  Spain  when  discovering  America,  of  Greece,  and 
of  China,  while  I  suggested  Switzerland.  I  immediately 
followed  with  another  problem,  'What  are  the  geographical 
conditions  of  the  British  Isles  that  have  affected  its  history?' 
I  expected  to  receive  the  reply,  'Its  being  an  island  and 
isolated  from  the  mainland,'  but  from  the  previous  discus- 
sion, and  I  presume  from  its  configuration  as  shown  on  the 
map,  one  boy  said,  'Its  good  harbors.'  This  required  a 
pointing  out  of  the  harbors  and,  in  connection  with  them, 

Note. — The  numbers  after  the  points  in  II  indicate  those  points 
in  I  which  have  an  influence  upon  them. 


212  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  the  chief  cities  of  the  two  islands,  London,  Liverpool, 
Glasgow,  and  Belfast,  to  which  I  added  Edinburgh  and 
Dublin,  the  capitals  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  because  of 
their  future  usefulness.  This  brought  up,  by  some  small 
intervening  steps,  the  question  of  shipping,  as  implied  in 
the  idea  of  good  harbors,  and  I  gave  them  a  number  of 
facts  about  the  importance  of  the  shipping  of  England.  This 
line  of  attack  was  now  exhausted  for  the  purpose  of 
recitation. 

"Then  I  returned  to  the  original  problem,  'What  other 
geographical  conditions  affect  the  history  of  the  British 
Isles  ?'  The  answer  was,  The  mountains,'  and  we  proceeded 
to  point  out  that  the  islands  were  level  in  part  and  moun- 
tainous in  part.  When  asked  how  this  affected  the  history, 
they  saw  by  lines  that  were  drawn  that  the  mountains  in 
the  west  of  Great  Britain  were  coterminous  with  the  Welsh 
nation,  and  that  the  mountains  in  the  north  were  the  home 
of  the  Highland  Scotch,  while  the  level  land  was  populated 
by  the  English  and  Lowland  Scotch.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  the  Cheviot  Hills  mark  a  political  barrier,  although  the 
Lowlanders  of  Scotland  are  of  the  same  .origin  as  the  people 
of  England.  Then,  to  bring  in  the  Irish  nation,  I  asked, 
'What  part  of  the  British  Isles  remains  unaccounted  for?' 
whereupon  they  mentioned  Ireland,  and  explained  in  terms 
of  the  geographical  conditions  that  it  is  an  isolated  island. 
At  this  point  I  thought  it  wise  to  show  them  the  size  of 
England  in  terms  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  to  com- 
pare the  population  of  these  two  'areas  in  order  to  show 
the  density  of  population  of  the  British  Isles.  This  led  me 
to  ask  the  question,  'How  do  these  people  live?'  and  they 
replied  from  general  information,  'By  manufacturing.'  Then 
I  asked,  'Where  do  they  get  their  fuel?'  and  we  discussed 
the  extent  of  the  coal  deposits  of  England.  When  the  ques- 


213 

tion  of  raw  materials  arose,  the  fact  was  brought  out  that 
there  is  much  iron  in  England  but  that  the  bulk  of  raw 
materials  is  brought  from  other  countries.  This  re- 
emphasized  the  question  of  the  •  shipping  industry.  I 
repeated  the  question,  'What  other  industries  have  they?' 
and  the  students  suggested  agriculture ;  but  they  were  of 
the  opinion  that  since  England  is  so  small  and  the  popula- 
tion so  great,  they  would  be  unable  to  feed  themselves,  and 
would  therefore  be  dependent  upon  other  nations,  and  liable 
to  hard  times  or  even  starvation  in  war. 

"For  the  moment  I  forgot  the  industry  of  fishing,  and 
returned  to  the  original  problem,  'What  other  geographical 
conditions  would  affect  its  history?'  We  had  secured  by 
direct  questions  the  geographical  facts  that  the  islands  have 
excellent  harbors  and  that  they  are  mountainous  in  parts  and 
level  in  parts;  we  had  secured,  in  following  out  these  two 
lines,  the  geographical  facts  of  its  size  and  density  of  popu- 
lation, and  of  its  deposits  of  iron  and  coal.  The  final  fact 
that  it  is  an  island  and  isolated  from  the  mainland,  which 
I  supposed  they  would  give  first,  they  had  some  difficulty 
in  seeing,  probably  because  it  was  so  obvious,  so  I  had  to 
call  their  attention  to  it  directly.  This  was  done  by  the 
question,  'What  advantage  is  it  to  England  that  it  is  in- 
sular?' and  they  replied  that  other  nations  could  not  invade 
it.  I  pointed  out  the  flaw  in  this  statement ;  viz.,  that  other 
nations  might  invade  it  by  the  simple  expedient  of  getting 
ships,  whereupon  they  said  that  England  would  not  be 
invaded  if  she  had  a  navy  large  enough.  We  talked  about 
the  size  of  the  navy,  and  when  I  asked  the  advantage  of  a 
large  navy  to  England  they  were  able  to  bring  together 
from  the  tangle  of  our  discussion  up  to  date  'the  three  facts 
as  given  in  the  outline. 

"At  this  point  the  reader  will  notice,  by  checking  up  with 


214 


METHODS-OF  TEACHING 


the  outline,  that  we  had  covered  all  the  items  we  had  in- 
tended to  take  up,  except  those  relating  to  fishing  and  the 
wealth  of  England. 

"If  the  lesson  had  been  left  at  this  point  the  work  would 
have  been  covered,  because  we  had  seen  the  relationship 
between  the  different  items  and  the  geographical  conditions. 
But,  while  covered,  it  would  have  been  in  a  relatively  un- 
usable shape  because  not  properly  organized.  And  so  our 
next  problem  was  that  of  logical  organization.  We  did  this 
by  two  summaries.  First,  we  made  a  list  of  the  geograph- 
ical condition,  and  of  the  mere  facts  concerning  the  navy, 
industries,  etc.  In  this  summary  we  brought  in  the  industry 
of  fishing,  which  had  been  previously  left  out,  as  noted 
above,  but  did  not  bring  in  the  facts  concerning  the  wealth 
of  the  country,  because,  after  all,  it  was  related  more  directly 
to  the  industries  than  to  the  geographical  conditions.  In 
the  second  summary  we  took  each  item  contained  in  divi- 
sion II  and  related  it  to  the  geographical  conditions  in 
division  I,  by  the  following  type  of  question,  which  I  had 
the  students  frame:  'What  geographical  conditions  affect 
the  nationalities  of  the  British  Isles?'  'What  conditions 
affect  the  navy?'  etc.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  summary  not 
only  related  the  items  of  division  II  to  the  geographical 
conditions,  but  related  them  to  one  another. 

"As  a  home  assignment,  the  students  were  asked  to  synop- 
size  the  facts  as  given,  in  their  logical  order ;  and  the 
worth  of  their  work  was  gauged  by  their  approximation 
to  the  logical  outline  as  given  in  the  preceding  pages,  which 
the  students  had  not  seen.  I  had  intended  to  ask  the  fol- 
lowing questions,  which  related  to  the  problems  of  American 
conditions,  but  because  of  lack  of  time  could  not  do  it  in 
that  recitation:  I.  Do  these  facts  throw  any  light  upon  the 
reason  wh\  the  United  States  thinks  it  requires  a  navy? 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION  215 

2.  Might  we  expect  the  United  States  to  divide  itself  into  a 
group  of  separate  nations  because  of  geographical  condi- 
tions? 3.  If  free  trade  is  good  for  England,  is  the  United 
States  wise  in  having  a  high  tariff?" 

Suggestions.  —  The  following  observations  might  be 
made  upon  this  lesson  as  typical  of  the  teaching  of  a  unit 
composed  of  a  problem  whose  solution  consists  of  a  number 
of  relatively  discrete  facts. 

(1)  If  the  pupils  are  given  the  maximum  of  liberty  in 
their  attack  upon  a  problem,  the  development  of  the  solu- 
tion is  not  likely  to  follow  either  the  logical  outline  or  the 
order  which  the  teacher  has  thought  probable,  no  matter 
how   extended   his   experience.      He   cannot   foresee  what 
point  the  students  will  attack  first.     By  reference  to  the 
logical  outline  it  will  be  seen  that  the  order  in  which  the 
points  were  taken  up  were  these :   harbors,  cities,  shipping, 
mountains,  nationalities,  size  and  population,  manufacturing, 
shipping,   other   industries,   agriculture,   island   as   isolated 
from  mainland,  and  navy.     If  the  recitation  had  followed 
the  logical  outline  it  would  have  been  a  serious  loss  to  the 
amount  of  actual  thinking,  experimenting,  and  relating  that 
the  students  were  able  to  put  into  the  lesson. 

(2)  For  the  subject-matter  to  have  its  maximum  value 
the  recitation  cannot  be  considered  complete  without  a  sum- 
mary in  which  every  part  of  the  structure  is  related  to  its 
function. 

(3)  When  the  student  is  given  the  maximum  of  liberty 
of  attack,  the  recitation  is  broken  up  into  a  series  of  prob- 
lems and  each  step  of  the  series  grows  out  of  the  preceding. 
It  will  be  noted  that  this  recitation  returned  to  the  original 
problem  three  times,  giving  three  groups  of  problems. 

(4)  The  logical  outline  of  the  subject-matter  is  valuable 
for  the  teacher  to  use  (a)  as  a  standard  of  solution  of  the 


216  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

main  problem,  and  (b)  to  keep  him  from  going  too  far  afield 
in  the  recitation.  He  is  held  unconsciously  or  consciously  to 
the  main  content  of  the  solution. 

(5)  In  a  recitation,  no  matter  how  well  such  discrete 
subject-matter   may   be    prepared   and   memorized   by   the 
teacher,  frequently  one  part  is  omitted  in  the  development 
under  the  stress  of  changing  points  of  emphasis. 

(6)  In  the  summary  the  teacher  is  justified,  while  gather- 
ing up  the  subject-matter  into  a  logical  organization,  in 
filling    out    those    points    which    have    been    inadvertently 
omitted. 

(7)  In  short,  if  the  pupil  is  to  have  the  maximum  of 
liberty,  the  teacher  must  be  extremely  careful  not  to  demand 
in  the  development  the  following  of  a  cut-and-dried  order 
of  solution.    That  is  secured  later  in  the  lesson  by  means  of 
the  summary. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  teacher  who  does  not  follow 
his  logical  outline  in  a  cut-and-dried  way  cannot  foresee 
what  order  of  points  the  pupils  will  take,  of  what  should 
his  planning  consist?  It  seems  that  the  best  method  of 
procedure  for  the  teacher  in  preparing  the  development  is 
to  think  over  all  possible  difficulties  that  may  arise  in  the 
children's  getting  hold  of  the  subject-matter,  and  plan  out 
how  these  will  be  made  clear  to  them.  By  doing  this  he 
will,  of  course,  be  compelled  to  work  out  many  difficulties 
that  will  never  occur,  but  he  will  be  able  to  cope  with  all 
that  do  occur.  Nor  is  this  an  amount  of  preparation  in 
which  the  teacher  exceeds  that  of  other  professional  men. 
One  of  the  greatest  lawyers  of  the  country  attributes  his 
success  to  the  fact  that  when  studying  a  case  he  always 
worked  out  all  the  possible  lines  of  objection  so  fully  that 
over  sixty  per  cent,  of  his  material  was  never  used.  But 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION  217 

the  plan  safeguarded  him  against  failure  and  assured  his 
success. 

So,  likewise,  the  teacher  must  anticipate  all  the  difficulties, 
and  may,  also,  work  out  a  probable  plan  of  how  the  lesson 
should  proceed.  This  has  advantages,  especially  for  a 
novice;  he  is  not  entirely  at  sea;  he  has  some  plan  to 
follow.  But  the  teacher  should  not  feel  that  he  must  follow 
this,  whether  occasion  warrants  or  not.  The  plan  should  be 
fluent  and  easily  suited  to  his  pupils'  convenience  and  best 
work. 

The  Summary. — The  logical  organization  is  arrived  at 
in  the  summary.  This  is  always  the  point  at  which  the 
pupil  is  asked  to  state  the  main  points  discussed.  It  occurs 
whenever  the  development  has  gone  far  enough  to  make  it 
desirable.  And  it  is  advisable  to  make  it  whenever  the 
children  have  covered  so  much  material  that  there  is  danger 
of  their  forgetting.  Sometimes  one  will  have  summaries  at 
a  half  dozen  points  in  a  recitation,  sometimes  only  at  the 
end.  The  summary  should  be  made  by  the  pupils  unless  the 
lesson  has  been  a  very  difficult  one.  In  the  lesson  preceding, 
the  summary  was  not  made  till  the  end. 

SECTION  3.    SPECIFIC  SUBJECTS 

In  presenting  the  facts  in  any  subject,  the  problem 
emerges  again.  Should  the  pupil  take  them  up  in  their 
logical  order,  or  in  their  psychological  order?1 

In  those  subjects  in  which  a  good  deal  of  incidental  study 
has  already  occurred,  the  logical  order  may  be  followed. 
Such  is,  for  instance,  the  case  with  history  or  grammar  in 
the  eighth  grade.  But  in  those  subjects  which  are  relatively 

1  F.  Burk,  Genetic  vs.  Logical  Order  in  Drawing,  Fed.  Sem.,  Ill, 
296-323- 


218  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

new  to  the  pupils,  new  both  as  to  principles  and  terminology, 
the  psychological  approach  can  be  made  with  advantage. 
Two  or  three  illustrations  will  make  this  clear. 

Primary  Reading.  —  In  primary  reading,  the  logical 
order  is  letters,  syllables,  words,  and  sentences.  But  it 
has  been  proved  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  the 
psychological  point  of  approach  is  through  the  word,  or, 
better  still,  through  the  sentence.  Sentences,  words,  letters, 
syllables,  is  the  order  of  strongest  motivation,  but  this  is  not 
the  logical  order. 

Geography. — Again,   in   studying   climate    in   physical 
geography,  the  logical  order  as  laid  down  in  one  text  is  the 
following:    (i)   The  earth  as  a  Planet.     (2)   The  Atmos- 
phere.     (3)    Distribution   of   Temperature.      (4)    General 
Circulation  of   the  Atmosphere.      (5)    Storms.      (6)    The 
Moisture  of  the  Atmosphere.     (7)   Weather  and  Climate. 
The  teacher  may,  however,  vary  this  order  as  follows : 
A.     (i)     What  makes  wind  blow?     This  leads  to  a  dis- 
cussion  of   temperature   and   pressure,   and   the 
study  of  the  thermometer  and  barometer. 

(2)  What  is  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  in 
Columbia?  This  leads  to  charting  weather  reports. 

(3)  Why    does    it    blow    in   these    directions?     This 
introduces  cyclones,   highs  and   lows,   and   their 
size,  area,  track,  etc.    This  shows  that  the  wind  is 
chiefly  from  the  southwest,  and  south  and  west, 
because   the   track   of   the  cyclones   is   north  of 
Columbia,  and  moves  from  west  to  east. 

(4)  Where  else  can  we  find  the  directions  of  wind 
determined  by  temperature  and  pressure?     This 
leads  to  the  study  of  planetary  winds. 

(5)  Why  do  these  winds  blow  in  these  directions? 
This  introduces  the  earth  as  a  planet. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION  219 

B.     (i)     From  which  directions  do  the  rains  usually  come 
in  Columbia?     This  to  be  determined  by  charts. 

(2)  Why?    This  leads  to  a  study  of  the  cause  of  rain, 
and  the  source  of  moisture. 

(3)  What  is  the  cause  of  other  weather  phenomena, 
such  as  snow,  hail,  frost,  etc.? 

It  may  be  stated  that  when  worked  out  in  detail  these 
problems  embrace  about  three-fourths  of  the  text,  though 
the  order  of  topics  in  the  text  was  not  followed.  Each 
problem  has  those  topics  in  the  text  which  bear  upon  it 
assigned  for  reading  in  connection  with  it.  Then,  after  this 
amount  of  the  text  has  been  covered  in  this  desultory  way, 
the  class  may  be  turned  to  the  first  chapter,  to  go  through 
all  the  chapters,  one  after  the  other,  for  the  logical  arrange- 
ment. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  are,  first,  that  a  stronger 
motive  is  engendered,  since  both  the  love  of  geography  and 
the  interest  in  practical  home  problems  are  appealed  to. 
Second,  when  the  pupils  take  up  the  text  in  a  logical  way 
they  go  over  relatively  familiar  material  with  a  rich,  recent 
content  gained  by  the  earlier  survey.  This  method  is  of 
value  in  the  introduction  to  many  of  the  new  subjects  of 
the  high  school,  such  as  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  etc. 

The  principle  of  the  psychological  organization  may  be 
illustrated  in  another  way,  by  means  of  the  facts  of  the 
growth  of  subject-matter. 

SECTION  4.     GROWTH  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 

From  the  time  of  Rousseau  to  the  present  there  has  been 
a  constant  use  in  pedagogy  of  the  term  "development  and 
growth  of  the  individual."  Froebel  and  the  Herbartians 
used  it,  and  every  teacher  who  has  read  even  a  minimum  of 
pedagogical  literature  is  acquainted  with  the  idea. 

The  idea  of  growth  has  not,  however,  been  applied  with 


220  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

sufficient  emphasis  to  the  different  kinds  of  subject-matter 
within  experience.  We  -speak  of  the  development  of  the 
individual,  but  we  do  not  think  as  often  as  we  should 
about  the  development  of  each  of  the  subjects  within  the 
individual.  If  such  application  is  made  of  the  term  to 
branches  of  subject-matter,  an  interesting  and  valuable 
standpoint  is  obtained. 

The  Capital  of  the  Child. — In  the  first  place,  just  as 
the  individual  enters  the  business  world  with  a  certain  capi- 
tal, so  he  begins  the  study  of  any  subject  with  a  certain 
capital  of  that  particular  sort.  For  example,  when  he  begins 
the  study  of  formal  history  he  has  already  within  his  expe- 
rience a  considerable  mass  of  historical  subject-matter.  If 
a  teacher  could  take  the  pains  to  discover  the  actual. work- 
ing capital  that  a  pupil  possesses,  the  mass  would  be  found 
to  be  rather  large.  Or,  again,  we  may  instance  the  subject 
of  formal  grammar,  if  it  is  studied  in  the  higher  grades. 
The  pupil  probably  has  everything  to  start  with  except  the 
terminology,  although  this  capital  is  in  a  very  inchoate, 
incorrect,  and  indefinite  condition.  Or,  take  the  study  of 
physics  in  the  high  school.  The  student  starts  with  many 
notions  concerning  the  relation  of  force  to  things  that  he 
sees  about  him.  These  notions  are  inexact  and  indefinite, 
both  in  meaning  and  in  terminology.  But  the  point  is  that 
he  has  them,  and,  moreover,  that  they  are  his  capital,  and 
that  in  the  face  of  new  situations  he  has  nothing  but  them 
with  which  to  work. 

Subject-Matter  Not  Hypodermically  Injected. — That  is 
to  say,  and  this  is  the  second  point,  the  teacher  cannot 
hypodermically  inject  new  subject-matter  into  the  pupil. 
The  child  is  at  the  mercy  of  what  he  already  knows.  He 
can  move  forward  only  in  so  far  as  problems  of  develop- 
ment emerge  within  this  capital  that  he  has.  If  they  do 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION  221 

not  arise  within  this  subject-matter,  the  thing  which  the 
teacher  thinks  he  is  teaching  slides  off  the  child's  expe- 
rience like  water  off  the  proverbial  duck's  back.  Each 
branch  of  subject-matter  grows  just  as  the  individual  grows, 
by  the  development  of  what  he  already  has.  This  does  not 
preclude  the  "introduction"  of  new  material.  It  simply  lays 
stress  upon  the  fact  that  the  idea  introduced  gets  meaning 
for  the  child  from  whatever  reorganizations  of  experience 
he  makes  in  order  to  get  control  of  it.  The  first  time  he 
sees  a  mountain  it  means  to  him  no  more  than  he  can  gain 
by  reorganization  of  what  he  already  has.  In  this  sense 
we  rather  get  him  to  reorganize  his  experience  so  that  it 
will  approximate  to  the  racial  organizations  than  put  into 
him  new  subject-matter  as  we  add  potatoes  to  a  bin. 

Child  Subject-Matter  the  Focal  Point. — In  the  third 
place,  the  important  factor  for  the  teacher,  the  one  which 
he  should  keep  in  mind,  is  not  the  logically  arranged  text- 
book, but  the  subject-matter  within  the  experience  of  the 
pupil.  It  is  almost  an  obsession  with  us  who  teach,  to  have 
the  subject-matter  we  are  about  to  present  always  in  the 
focus  of  attention,  rather  than  the  subject-matter  which 
the  pupil  already  has.  Yet  if  the  subject-matter  within  the 
pupil  grows  only  by  means  of  problems  arising  one  after 
another,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  condition  in  which  it  is 
situated  in  his  mind  and  organized  within  it  may  be  very 
different  from  that  which  we  have  so  nicely  organized  within 
our  own  minds.  It  is  unfortunate  that  we  cannot  get  as 
clear  an  image  of  what  his  problems  are  as  we  have  of  our 
own,  and  one  deficiency  of  ours  is  that  the  problem  of 
imaging  the  state  of  the  subject-matter  within  him  is  not 
so  seriously  attacked  by  us  as  it  should  be.  To  be  sure,  the 
knowledge  of  his  mental  content  cannot  be  attained  to  any 
complete  degree ;  the  value  to  be  gained  from  attacking  this 


222  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

problem  is  essentially  that  of  securing  the  right  attitude 
rather  than  that  of  securing  any  definite  picture.     . 

Historical  Growth  of  Subject-Matter. — To  emphasize 
the  fact  that  subject-matter  grows  in  the  individual,  we  can 
point  to  the  historical  organization  of  subject-matter.  We 
have  on  record  the  different  types  of  problems  and  organi- 
zations of  subject-matter  in  the  various  branches.  A  study 
of  the  history  of  mathematics  shows  us  that  the  organi- 
zations of  the  problems  which  the  race  has  had  at  different 
times  are  very  decidedly  different  in  form  from  our  own, 
but  that  out  of  these,  by  gradual  growth,  has  developed 
the  modern  subject-matter.  And  while  it  cannot  be  main- 
tained that  the  child  duplicates  the  race  in  the  consecutive 
order  of  his  problems  and  his  resultant  organization  of 
subject-matter,  a  study  of  the  history  of  different  branches 
of  knowledge  will  illustrate  by  analogy  the  fact  that  the 
immature  child  differs  very  materially  and  widely  from  the 
mature  and  well-trained  teacher,  just  as  the  old  type  of 
problems  and  their  solutions  differ  from  those  of  modern 
times.  If  we  could  remember  that  the  subject-matter  within 
each  individual  developed  genetically  from  very  crude  and 
simple  subject-matter  by  means  of  problems  which  arise 
within  experience,  as  well  as 'we  remember  that  subject- 
matter  developed  historically  within  the  race  from  very 
crude  beginnings  by  means  of  problems  which  arose  within 
racial  experience,  we  would  see  more  clearly  the  necessity 
for  intellectual  sympathy  with  children.  For  example,  the 
beginnings  of  history  in  little  children  arise  from  what  hap- 
pened yesterday,  last  week,  grows  to  include  facts  about 
father,  grandfather,  George  Washington,  Cinderella,  Old 
Mother  Hubbard,  Abraham  Lincoln — a  jumble  of  past 
events  which  cannot  by  any  means  be  organized  from  a 
historical  point  of  view  as  they  then  stand. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION 


223 


EXERCISES 

1.  Observe  a  good  teacher  teach  a  lesson,  after  securing 
from  him  a  logical  organization  of  the  subject-matter  he 
expects  to  teach.    Note  how  he  varies  from  this  in  taking,  it 
up  with  the  class.     Have  him  explain  the  variations  you 
notfced. 

2.  Were  the  summaries  sufficient  in  number  and  well 
placed? 

3.  What  were  the  points  of  difficulty  for  pupils  ? 

4.  How  were  they  handled? 

5.  What  motives  were  present? 

6.  What  advantages  were  there  in  not  following  the 
systematic  outline? 

7.  Howr    do    you    think    the    lesson    could    have   been 
improved  ? 

8.  If  you  have  taught,  or  are  teaching,  give  an  illus- 
tration of  your  own  of  the  first  question  above. 

9.  Work  out  for  class  a  series  of  questions  that  will 
test  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  a  subject  to  be  studied  during 
the  next  year.    Have  these  criticised  in  class,  and  from  all 
the  members  make  a  composite  list.     Then  make  arrange- 
ments to  have  this  list  given  to  the  pupils  for  whom  it  was 
made.    Tabulate  the  results. 

10.  What  are  the  striking  points  that  the  test  brings  out? 

11.  Is  it  true  that  a  pupil  knows  a  great  deal  about  a 
subject  before  he  begins  to  study  it? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

INCIDENTAL  AND  SYSTEMATIC  TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT- 
MATTER 

SECTION  i.     LOGICALLY  ORGANIZED  SUBJECT-MATTER 

The  Common  Plan. — The  distinctions  made  in  the  last 
chapter  have  an  unusually  interesting  application  in  the 
organization  of  the  course  of  study,  particularly  in  the 
elementary  school. 

For  centuries  the  subjects  of  the  course  of  study  have 
been  taught  in  isolation  each  from  the  other.  Arithmetic 
is  taught  in  one  period,  history  in  another,  writing  in  a 
third,  and  so  forth.  Moreover,  each  subject  has  been  ar- 
ranged logically,  as  can  be  seen  in  any  of  the  older  school 
text-books.  Grammar  began  with  a  definition  of  the  subject, 
and  a  catalogue  of  its  divisions,  and  then  step  by  step  the 
whole  science  was  unfolded. 

These  two  characteristics — logical  arrangement  and  isola- 
tion— were  the  common  characteristics  of  the  treatment  of 
all  subjects  up  to  a  few  years  ago. 

Weakness. — However,  as  pointed  out  by  Herbart  one 
hundred  years  ago,  and  particularly  by  Dewey  in  our  own 
day,  isolation  of  subjects  is  not  natural.  Children  do  not 
outside  school  have  such  strong  lines  of  demarcation  in 
what  they  do  as  is  required  by  school  practice.  No  child 
outside  of  school  says  this  is  arithmetic,  that  geography. 
He  goe's  ahead  with  what  he  is  doing  and  passes  uncon- 
sciously from  one  subject  to  another. 

It  was  pointed  out  by  others  that  the  presentation  of 

224 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  225 

subject-matter  in  logical  order  was  not  conducive  to  the 
greatest  interest.  Pestalozzi  had  made  an  improvement 
over  earlier  texts  by  insisting  that  there  should,  of  course, 
be  a  logical  sequence  but  that  the  steps  should  be  easy. 
Pestalozzi,  however,  started  from  the  wrong  point  of  view. 
He  should,  instead  of  beginning  with  the  simplest  elements 
and  proceeding  by  easy  steps,  have  paid  more  attention  to 
what  children  are  interested  in.  Usually,  for  instance,  it  is 
easier  and  pleasanter  for  the  pupil  to  begin  with  geography 
of  the  home  vicinity  than  with  the  elements  of  geography. 
It  is  better  in  language  to  have  him  commence  with  a  per- 
sonal letter  than  with  the  rules  of  composition.  In  learning 
to  write,  they  say,  a  child  will  do  better  by  beginning  with 
words  than  with  the  curves  and  lines  that,  when  joined, 
give  letters  and,  later,  words. 

SECTION  2.     PSYCHOLOGIZED  SUBJECT-MATTER 

Psychologized  Subject-Matter. — The  present  genera- 
tion of  educators  believe  that  there  is  much  truth  in  these 
criticisms,  and  several  attempts  have  been  made  to  avoid 
isolation  of  subjects,  and  to  make  each  subject  correspond 
more  nearly  to  the  natural  order  or  sequence  of  topics. 

Perhaps  no  better  illustration  of  the  psychologizing  of 
subject-matter  in  texts  can  be  found  than  in  the  recent 
language  and  arithmetic  texts.  I  seleet  at  random  a  lan- 
guage book  and  find  the  following  to  be  the  order  of  the 
language  facts  presented : 

1.  Definition  of  a  sentence. 

2.  Capital  at  beginning  of  sentence. 

3.  Period  at  end  of  sentence. 

4.  Name  of  person  begins  with  capital. 

5.  Use  of  "went"  and  "gone." 

6.  The  paragraph. 

7.  Use  of  "a"  and  "an." 


226  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

8.  Use  of  capitals  in  a  title. 

9.  Use  of  "run"  and  "ran." 

10.  Exclamations. 

11.  Capitals  in  names  of  places. 

12.  Use  of  "no,"  "not,"  "never"  and  "have." 

13.  Abbreviations. 

14.  Use  of  comma,  etc. 

Here  it  is  observed  that  from  a  logical  point  of  view  the 
order  is  decidedly  illogical.  The  author  of  the  text  claims 
that  while  it  is  not  logical  it  takes  up  items  that  are  of 
use  in  the  written  or  spoken  language  of  the  pupils  and  pre- 
sents them  about  in  the  order  in  which  a  need  can  be  aroused 
for  them.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  psychologizing  subject- 
matter. 

The  objection  is  raised  that  text-books  can  make  only  an 
imperfect  attempt  at  this  process^because  they  do  not  fit  the 
peculiar  conditions  of  each  class.  It  is  claimed  that  they  do" 
not  go  the  whole  length  and  that  the  teacher  who  teaches 
the  classes  should  determine  the  order  of  the  topics,  taking 
them  up  when  needed.  A  complete  psychologizing  of  a 
subject  can  be  done  only  by  a  teacher  with  his  own  class. 
It  would  be  better,  say  these  critics,  to  have  the  subject- 
matter  in  language,  for  instance,  arranged  logically,  with 
appropriate  drill  exercises  for  each  topic,  and  let  the  teacher 
dip  into  it  at  any  point  where  the  errors  each  class  make 
in  their  oral  or  written  speech,  demands.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent plan  wherever  well-trained  teachers  can  be  found. 
Where  the  teachers  are  poorly  trained,  a  favorable  outcome 
is  not  so  certain. 

•  SECTION  3.     CORRELATION  AND  CONCENTRATION 

Correlation. — In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  we  have 
been  speaking  of  the  psychological  versus  logical  presenta- 
tion of  any  subject.  The  other  weakness  of  the  commonly 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  227 

accepted  division  of  subjects — isolation — has  given  rise  to 
the  doctrine  of  correlation.  This  goes  back  to  Herbart  and 
is  amplified  by  his  disciples.  McMurry  says,1  "By  corre- 
lation is  meant  such  a  connection  between  the  parts  of  each 
study  and  such  a  spinning  of  relations  and  connecting  links 
between  different  sciences  that  unity  may  spring  out  of  the 
variety  of  knowledge.  History,  for  example,  is  a  series^ 
and  collocation  of  facts  explainable  on  the  basis  of  cause 
and  effect,  a  development.  On  the  other  hand,  history  is 
intimately  related  to  geography,  language,  natural  science, 
literature,  and  mathematics.  It  would  be  impossible  to  draw 
real  history  out  by  the  roots  without  drawing  all  other 
studies  out  bodily  with  it." 

Correlation  attempts  to  relate  the  information  in  one  sub- 
ject with  other  subjects,  different  parts  of  the  same  subject 
with  each  other,  and  all  subjects  with  the  life  of  the  pupil. 
Geography  should  be  used  in  history.  Attention  should  be 
paid  to  language  in  every  other  subject.  Arithmetic  should 
be  used  wherever  needed.  History  should  be  used  in  litera- 
ture. Facts  found  in  Grecian  history  should  be  correlated 
at  appropriate  times  with  Roman  history.  The  geography 
of  Europe  should  be  used  in  geography  lessons  on  North 
America.  Each  day's  lesson  should  be  related  with  what 
has  gone  before. 

Moreover,  all  school  subjects  should  be  related  to  the 
life  of  the  child.  Arithmetic  should  draw  its  applications 
from  business  life.  The  pupil  should  be  able  to  .draw  up 
notes,  receipts  and  bills.  History  should  explain  modern 
life  and  not  be  a  mere  study  of  ancient  problems.  Physiol- 
ogy should  be  related  to  sanitation  and  practical  habits  of 
hygiene.  Civics  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
government  of  the  home  community. 

1  Elements  of  General  Method,  p.  162. 


228  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

This  is  sound  pedagogical  doctrine.  The  school  tends  to 
make  each  subject  an  end  in  itself.  But  each  subject  is 
instrumental.  It  has  been  evolved  by  the  race  to  control 
values,  and  children's  values  are  largely  practical. 

Concentration. — In  the  search  for  motive  and  for  a 
remedy  for  isolation,  certain  reformers  have  gone  further, 
saying  that  there  are  two  classes  of  correlated  subjects — 
central  and  subordinate.  They  all  agree  pretty  well  that 
writing,  spelling,  reading,  arithmetic,  and  language  are  sub- 
ordinate subjects.  The  doctrine  of  concentration  postulates 
that  if  certain  subjects  are  made  the  central  subjects;  i.  e., 
subjects  which  are  studied  continuously  and  more  or  less 
systematically,  the  subordinate  subjects  can  be  learned  inci- 
dentally. It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  specific  period  for 
teaching  writing  or  spelling  every  day.  These  can  be  better 
learned  by  having  the  children  write  upon  the  central  sub- 
jects and  study  enough  writing  and  spelling  to  do  this 
properly.  When  pupils  are  found  to  write  illegibly,  then 
give  some  writing  lessons.  Gather  up  their  errors  ,in 
spelling  and  have  a  spelling  lesson  every  once  in  a  while. 

It  is  claimed,  and  justly  so,  that  two  advantages  will  result. 
First,  the  pupils  will  have  a  stronger  motive  for  learning 
material  incidental  to  the  work  of  the  central  subject, 
material  for  which  they  feel  the  need.  Second,  because 
they  see  its  use  they  will  understand  it  better.  It  will  be 
concrete.  When  a  boy  is  making  a  sled  and  has  to  measure 
his  lumber  he  will  get  a  stronger  hold  upon  board  measure 
and  cost  of  lumber  than  if  this  were  a  hypothetical  problem 
in  an  arithmetic  class. 

It  is  claimed  by  the  opponents  of  concentration  that  the 
pupils  will  be  better  able  to  utilize  the  subject-matter  of 
arithmetic,  spelling  or  writing  in  the  central  subjects  if 
they  have  first  studied  it  systematically  in  separate  classes. 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  229 

This,  of  course,  is  true,  but  does  not  meet  the  question  of 
motive.  For  if  the  subjects  are  each  studied  systematically 
and  in  isolation,  how  will  the  motive  for  each  have  been 
secured  in  the  beginning  ?  Presumably  by  immediate  interest 
in  the  subject.  But  it  is  hard  to  get  immediate  interest  in 
formal  subjects  such  as  writing  or  spelling,  while  it  is 
relatively  easy  to  secure  interest  in  history  or  industrial 
work. 

SECTION  4.     CENTRAL  SUBJECTS 

Central  Subjects. — The  selection  of  central  subjects  is 
dependent  upon  their  immediate  interest  and  their  impor- 
tance for  pupils  of  the  age  at  which  they  are  studied.  For 
if  these  central  subjects  do  not  possess  value,  no  intrinsic 
need  can  be  created  for  the  instrumental  subjects  which  are 
studied  incidentally.  The  children  will  not  care  to  learn 
arithmetic,  spelling  or  writing  if  they  have  no  interest  in 
the  subject-matter  which  requires  the  use  of  these.  At  the 
same  time  these  central  subjects  must  be  studied,  because 
they  are  of  great  use  to  the  pupils  at  that  time.  Many 
trivial  subjects  possess  interest,  but  they  have  to  be  excluded 
because  they  are  not  as  important  as  something  else. 

Generally  speaking,  no  one  subject  can  be  made  the  "core" 
because  no  one  subject  exercises  the  whole  of  life  and  no 
one  can  use  all  the  incidental  subjects.  Literature  is  impor- 
tant and  interesting,  but  it  would  not  use  much  arithmetic 
or  geography.  Geography  is  important,  but  it  will  not  use 
much  literature  or  history.  Consequently  it  is  necessary  to 
have  more  than  one  central  subject  in  the  .whole  course. 
These  may  be  apportioned  to  different  grades  or  run  side 
by  side  through  all  4he  grades. 

Which  are  the  central  subjects?  To  this  several  answers 
have  been  given  by  various  people.  These  plans  will  be 


230  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

treated  briefly  and  references  will  be  given  at  the  end  of 
the  chapter. 

Parker's  Plan. — F.  W.  Parker  says,1  "The  subject-matter 
found  in  the  child's  environment,  to  be  used  in  its  develop- 
ment, is  classified  under  the  head  of  central  subjects:  (a) 
Geography,  geology,  and  mineralogy — the  sciences  of  in- 
organic matter.  (b)  Physics  and  chemistry — the  laws  of 
movement  and  change  of  inorganic  matter,  (c)  Botany, 
zoology,  anthropology,  ethnology,  and  history — sciences  of 
organic  matter  and  life,  (d)  Physiology — the  physics  and 
chemistry  of  living  organisms." 

He  adds :  "A  child  comes  in  contact  with  all  these  sub- 
jects in  its  environment,  and  begins  instinctively  its  investi- 
gations in  each  and  every  one  of  the  directions  indicated  by 
the  central  subjects.  The  doctrine  of  concentration  pro- 
poses that  these  subjects  be  continued  as  a  child  has  begun 
them,  until  there  arrives  that  period  of  mental  develop- 
ment when  a  specialization  of  subjects  can  most  econom- 
ically grow  out  of  the  rich  subsoil  of  the  related  knowl- 
edge of  all  subjects.  The  direct  study  of  the  central  sub- 
jects, by  observation,  investigation,  imagination,  and  orig- 
inal inference,  furnishes  an  inexhaustible  means  of  educa- 
tive mental  action." 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  of  course,  that  these  subjects 
are  not  to  be  studied  in  the  grades  with  such  attention  to 
technical  detail  as  the  names  of  the  subjects  and  acquaint- 
ance with  them  in  college  and  high  school  would  imply. 
Disciples  of  Parker  have  worked  some  of  this  out  in  detail 
as  can  be  found  in  the  early  numbers  of  the  journal  now 
called  the  Elementary  School  Teacher. * 

Mrs.  Alling-Aber's  Plan. — Mrs.  Alling-Aber  describes 
an  experiment  carried  on  by  her  in  Boston  and  repeated  by 

1  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  p.  377. 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  231 

others  in  Chicago  and  states  the  aim1  of  the  experiment 
as  follows:  "The  aim  of  the  experiment  was  to  see  if 
the  child  may  not  be  introduced  at  once  to  the  foundations 
of  all  learning — the  natural  and  physical  sciences,  mathe- 
matics, literature  (including  language),  and  history — and  at 
the  same  time  be  given  a  mastery  of  such  elements  of 
reading,  writing,  and  number  as  usually  constitute  primary 
education." 

This  plan  is  obscure  in  this  sense,  that  while  mathematics 
is  given  as  a  central  subject,  arithmetic  is  studied  inciden- 
tally as  is  sho\vn  later  in  her  text  (p.  171).  This  author 
adds  literature  to  the  list  of  central  subjects  quoted  just 
above. 

Dewey's  Plan. — In  The  School  and  Society  Professor 
Dewey  gives  a  list  of  impulses  and  interests  which  may  be 
counted  upon  in  the  grades.2  These  are  the  interest  "in 
conversation  or  communication;  in  inquiry,  or  finding  out 
things;  in  making  things,  or  construction;  and  in  artistic 
expression." 

These  are  the  impulses  and  interests.  The  material 
upon  which  they  will  work — the  central  subjects  are  fluent, 
but  in  so  far  as  they  were  worked  out  in  the  Elementary 
School,  chief  emphasis  was  laid  upon  occupations  as  "the 
articulating  centers  of  school  life."  3 

Miss  Dopp's  Plan. — Miss  Dopp  has  elaborated  upon  the 
plan  just  presented4  for  making  occupations  the  center  as 
follows : 

i.  In  later  infancy  (2]/2  to  7  or  8  years)  the  child  be- 
gins to  exploit  his  environment.  He  will  do  this  through 

1  An  Experiment  in  Education,  p.  3. 

2  P.  57- 

3  Op.  cit.,  p.  24. 

*  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Education, 


232  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

games,  dramatic  plays,  simple  agricultural  life  before  the 
introduction  of  machinery,  contact  with  animals  and  plants, 
crude  and  simple  construction  work. 

2.  In  the  period  of  transition   (eighth  year)    hunting 
activities,  the  earliest  forms  of  trade,  primitive  travel  and 
transportation  by  water,  and  the  making  of  primitive  tools 
and  weapons  may  be  made  the  center. 

3.  Childhood  (8  to  10  years)  is  "pre-eminently  a  motor 
period."     Such  problems  may  be  taken  up  as  "how  man 
secured  dominion  over  the  natural  forces,  substituting  for 
the  motive  power  of  his  own  muscles  that  of  the  beast, 
the  water,  the  wind,  fire,  steam,  and  electricity;  and  how, 
in  applying  these  forces  to  the  work  of  society,  he  invented 
tools,  discovered  mechanical  principles,  worked  out  metrical 
apparatus,  exploited  his  environment  in  search  of  natural 
forces,  and  invented  and  controlled  machines  for  the  more 
advantageous  application  of  these  forces'."  (p.  158-9.) 

Harriet  M.  Scott's  Plan. — Miss  Scott1  has  modified  the 
Culture  Epoch  theory  in  applying  it  to  American  condi- 
tions and  indicates,  in  a  general  way,  the  dominant  interest 
for  each  grade,  and  the  material  which  furnishes  nutriment 
for  the  child  at  each  stage  of  his  development.  These  fea- 
tures may  be  exhibited  in  outline  as  follows : 

DOMINANT  INTEREST  MATERIAL 

To  use  senses  (curiosity).  Nomadic  period  of  history — 

Indian  as  type. 

For  possessions.  Pastoral  and  agricultural 

period — early  Aryan  as 
type. 

For  attention  or  notice.  Persian. 

To  imitate  (suggestibility).       Greek. 


Organic  Education,  pp.  28-30. 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 


233 


DOMINANT  INTEREST 

To  co-operate  for  the  sake 

of  gain. 

For  personal  freedom. 
To  serve  (display  power). 
For  adventure,  experiment. 

For  what  is  true  (incipient). 

For  activity,  movement,  af- 
fairs. 
For  the  practical. 

For  what  is  personally  prac- 
tical. 
For  authoritative  knowledge. 


For  explanation — how  things 
came  to  be,  or  how  they 
are  done. 


MATERIAL 


Roman. 


For  approval  (extremes 
shown  in  diffidence  and 
egotism). 


Early  German. 

Feudalism  and  chivalry. 

Renaissance  —  Columbus  as 
type. 

Puritan  as  type  of  reforma- 
tion. 

Story  of  America. 

United  States  in  its  organic 
relations. 

Europe  and  its  relations  to 
the  United  States. 

Asia  (past,  present,  future) 
in  relation  to  the  United 
States. 

Africa,  as  showing  nations 
crystallized  (inter- 
preted  through  their 
works),  and  as  showing 
nations  in  the  making.  Its 
meaning  to  the  United 
States. 

The  earth's  history  as  a 
planet,  its  present  physical 
conditions,  and  the  evolu- 
tion of  industrial  life. 
(Each  individual,  though 
but  a  small  part,  is  seen  to 
be  organically  related  to 
the  whole.) 


234 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


For  a  larger  self-interest  in 
community  and  national 
life. 


For  the  ideal. 


DOMINANT  INTEREST  MATERIAL 

For  admiration  and  power.  Brief  view  of  the  history  of 

the  rise  and  decline  of  the 
great  civilizations  of  the 
world  (with  causes),  and 
special  study  of  social  life. 

Growth  of  the  State  as  a 
larger  self,  as  shown  in 
United  States  history,  and 
of  the  individual  as  a 
larger  self,  as  shown  in 
literature. 

Ideals  of  institutional  life 
(particularly  of  the 
home),  as  shown  through 
history,  nature  study,  lit- 
erature, and  art. 

She  adds:1  "The  purpose  of  these  headings  may  be 
briefly  indicated,  first  on  the  negative  side.  They  are  not 
designed  to  be  blindly  followed  by  the  teacher  in  her 
presentation  of  the  period  to  the  children.  Their  purpose 
is  largely  that  of  convenience,  enabling  the  teacher  to  trace 
for  herself  the  various  lines  of  progress  from  age  to  age, 
and  thus  to  gain  a  more  distinct  and  orderly  conception  > 
of  each  period  in  its  specific  relations  to  every  other.  The 
divisions  may  also  serve  to  assure  the  teacher  that  she 
h^as  omitted  no  essential  points  in  either  preparation  or 
presentation,  and  to  test  the  knowledge  of  the  children  in 
reviewing  a  given  period.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that,  in  the  study  of  the  Roman  period,  for  instance,  the 
teacher  shall  conscientiously  complete  the  topic  of,  say,  social 


1  Op.  cit,  p.  62. 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  235 

life,  before  she  allows  herself  to  touch  upon  that  of  the 
church.  In  any  of  the  earlier  civilizations,  especially,  the 
different  strands  of  life  are  so  intertwined  that  to  attempt 
to  keep  them  rigidly  apart  is  to  do  violence  to  the  spirit 
of  the  age  itself.  In  general,  the  order  of  topics  set  down 
may  be  followed,  and  whether  followed  or  not  it  should 
always  be  clearly  defined  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher;  but 
only  to  clarify,  not  to  dominate,  the  manner  of  pre- 
sentation." 

Meriam's  Flan. — J.  L.  Meriani  in  a  publication  soon 
to  be  issued  organizes  the  elementary  school  as  follows: 

In  the  first  three  grades  four  activities  form  the  basis, 
these  being  the  playing  of  games,  handwork,  observation, 
stories.  In  the  fourth  grade  local  industries  form  the  cen- 
ter. These  industries  vary  with  the  locality  but  include 
such  common  ones  as  the  grocery  store,  the  blacksmith 
shop,  the  shoe  shop  and  the  postoffice.  In  the  fifth  and 
sixth  grades  industries  at  large  are  the  subjects  of  study: 
such  industries  as  fishing,  hunting,  lumbering,  mining, 
transportation,  manufacturing,  governmental  activities,  etc. 
In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  in  order  to  secure  bet- 
ter interpretation  and  richer  appreciation  of  these  activi- 
ties, their  growth  and  evolution  from  simpler  and  cruder 
forms  that  have  been  or  are  now  in  use  are  studied. 

Throughout  all  the  grades  the  fourth  activity  of  the  pri- 
mary grades — stories — is  used,  in  the  grades  above  the 
third  it  develops  into  the  study  of  pictures,  literature,  and 
music.  Likewise  through  all  the  grades  from  first  to  last 
attention  is  given  to  physical  education  largely  through 
folk  dances. 

Stone's  Plan. — C.  W.  Stone  in  his  Training  School 
Course  of  Study,  finds  "three  interests,  viz.,  play,  seasonal 
changes,  and  special  days,  are  available  for  use  in  each 


236  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

• 

grade."  "Beside  the  above  mentioned  interests  that  are 
utilized  in  all  the  grades,  certain  interests  have  been  se- 
lected for  special  use  in  each  individual  grade.  For  the 
respective  grades  these  are : 

Grade  I.          Home  Life. 

Grade  II.        Community  Occupations. 

Grade  III.       Community  Industries. 

Grade  IV.       Helps  from  Other  Lands.    Transportation  and 

Life  in  Other  Lands. 

Grade  V.        Westward  Expansion.    The  New  World. 
Grade  VI.       Colonization  and   Our   Heritage   from   Great 

Nations  and  Individuals. 
Grade  VII.     The  Growth  of  Our  Nation. 

The  Growth  of  Our  State. 

SECTION  5.     INCIDENTAL  SUBJECTS 

To  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the  subjects  may  be  in- 
troduced incidentally  I  shall  quote  freely  from  an  unpub- 
lished experiment  made  by  Ernest  Horn  in  the  University 
Elementary  School,  Columbia,  Missouri,  in  1908-9.  The 
investigation  was  carried  on  in  the  seventh  grade,  and  United 
States  history  was  made  the  center.  This  means  in  terms 
of  time  periods,  that  history  was  studied  all  the  day  and 
every  day  in  the  year.  And  in  studying  history  the  pupils 
had  to  use  writing,  spelling,  arithmetic,  etc.  There  was  no 
set  period  for  these  subjects.  When  it  was  necessary  to 
study  some  arithmetic  they  stopped  and  studied  it,  sometimes 
for  a  few  minutes,  sometimes  for  a  half  day,  depending 
upon  the  extent  of  the  problem. 

All  of  the  reading  of  the  year  was  based  upon  the  history 
of  the  United  States.  With  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  for- 
eign orations  and  Dickens'  American  Notes,  all  the  selections 
read  were  from  American  authors.  These  selections  were 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  237 

made  for  two  purposes:  First,  for  the  descriptive  matter 
they  contained  relative  to  the  topic  in  hand,  and  second, 
for  their  worth  as  examples  of  the  culture  of  the  period 
in  which  they  were  produced.  Oftentimes,  as  in  the  case  of 
Franklin's  Autobiography  and  Whittier's  Snowbound,  these 
two  purposes  became  one. 

Reading. — The  method  in  reading  orally  was  as  fol- 
lows :  When  information  primarily  was  sought,  either  one 
member  of  the  class  prepared  the  reading  and  read  to  all 
the  class,  or  the  class  read  at  sight,  reading  the  paragraph 
or  a  page  in  turn.  As  the  purpose  stated  above  was  to  im- 
part information,  the  attention  in  such  reading  was  given 
to  interpreting  the  printed  page  so  clearly  that  the  rest  of 
the  class  could  understand  it.  In  case  a  pupil  fell  short  of 
this  criterion,  the  stanza  or  paragraph  was  reread  by  another 
member  of  the  class.  The  reproof  implied  in  this  repetition 
was  sufficient  to  insure  better  efforts  next  time.  Occa- 
sionally the  repetition  was  required  of  the  pupil  who  failed 
to  make  himself  understood  the  first  time. 

Literature. — Twenty-nine  selections  were  read.  They 
were  selected  for  literary  value  and  because  they  illustrated 
some  event  or  period.  Among  the  selections  read  were 
Aldrich's  Unguarded  Gates,  Franklin's  Autobiography,  Lin- 
coln's Gettysburg  Speech,  Lowell's  The  Courting,  Wood- 
worth's  The  Old  Oaken  Bucket,  etc.  In  addition  to  this 
poetry,  prose  selections  such  as  Leather  Stocking  Tales,  The 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  Dickens'  American  Notes,  etc., 
were  read. 

Writing. — A  great  deal  of  written  work  was  required 
in  the  course  of  the  year's  work  (i)  in  the  way  of  reports 
on  special  investigations,  and  (2)  in  making  summaries  or 
expositions  of  such  solutions  of  the  problems  as  had  been 
found  by  the  class.  No  work  was  accepted  which  was  not 


238  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

done  with  care.  The  criterion  was  neatness  and  legibility. 
When  a  composition  did  not  meet  these  requirements,  the 
faults  were  pointed  out  and,  after  the  necessary  instruc- 
tion as  to  how  to  correct  the  difficulties,  the  paper  was 
rewritten. 

Spelling. — In  all  written  work  the  number  of  words 
misspelled  on  each  page  was  marked  at  the  top  of  that  page. 
The  words  were  not  indicated  but  left  to  be  sought  out  by 
the  child.  This  was  to  give  care  in  looking  over  work  pre- 
"vious  to  handing  it  in.  These  words,  when  searched  out, 
sometimes  with  the  aid  of  a  fellow-student,  were  written 
upon  the  back  of  the  composition  and  handed  to  the  teacher. 
A  duplicate  list  was  handed  to  the  class  secretary,  who  was 
elected  every  week,  and  he  copied  them  in  a  notebook.  After 
every  misspelled  word  was  written  the  initials  of  the  pupil 
who  had  missed  it.  At  the  end  of  each  week  a  spelling 
lesson  was  given  upon  the  words  missed.  Words  spelled 
incorrectly  in  this  exercise  were  carried  over  until  the  next 
week.  The  system  was  thus  self-corrective.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  the  notebook  in  which  the  records  were  kept  con- 
tained 639  different  words,  some  of  which  had  been  mis- 
spelled very  frequently.  This  does  not  represent  the  num- 
ber, out  of  the  total  vocabulary  used,  that  the  children  were 
unable  to  spell.  Each  child  was  taught  to  consult  the  dic- 
tionary for  any  word  concerning  the  spelling  of  which  he 
was  in  doubt.  Many  words,  of  course,  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  misspelled,  were  for  this  reason  spelled  cor- 
rectly. At  the  same  time  this  list  contains  many  simple 
words  which  were  misspelled  through  a  slip  of  the  pen. 

Grammar. — Attention  to  grammar  arose  from  two 
sources:  (i)  in  the  interpretation  of  selections  which  were 
being  read,  and  (2)  in  the  correction  of  errors  in  written 
and  oral  composition.  In  the  former  case  attention  was  di- 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  239 

rected  to  grammatical  structure  (i)  when  the  meaning  was 
not  clear,  or  (2)  when  a  closer  analysis  was  helpful  to  a 
fuller  appreciation  of  the  selection. 

Composition  and  Language. — There  was  no  fixed  order 
in  which  the  forms  of  discourse  or  qualities  of  style  were 
taught.  Each  paper  depended  for  its  form  and  content  upon 
the  problem  being  studied  at  the  time.  Its  treatment  might 
require  any  one  or  all  of  the  forms  of  discourse.  If  the 
paper  were  not  intelligible,  nor  interesting,  that  fact  was 
noted  by  the  class  if  read  to  them,  or  by  the  teacher  if  read 
by  him.  In  reading  papers  the  teacher  indicated  faults  in 
the  margin  of  the  page  on  which  they  occurred,  and  dis- 
cussed with  the  individual  pupil  the  mistakes  made  by  him. 
Whatever  hindered  the  interest  or  clearness  of  a  composition 
was  corrected.  Such  corrections  varied  from  punctuation 
to  style.  Where  faults,  as,  for  example,  the  lack  of  unity, 
were  common  to  several  pupils,  time  was  taken  in  class  for 
a  correction  of  these  faults.  Considerable  time  was  spent 
in  discussing  plans  for  composition,  and  there  was  grad- 
ually developed  by  the  class  the  habit  of  carefully  outlining 
a  paper  before  writing  it.  Aside  from  such  discussions  as 
described  above,  no  time  was  given  for  instruction  in  any- 
thing like  rhetoric. 

Arithmetic  and  Algebra. — In  a  solution  of  the  problems 
which  constituted  the  course  of  study  much  arithmetical 
work  naturally  arose.  All  work  in  arithmetic  was  done 
only  to  aid  in  the  solution  of  some  problem  concerning  the 
development  of  the  United  States.  There  were  no  drill 
problems  except  in  cases  where  the  pupil  was  unable  to 
carry  on  the  processes  required.  Usually  such  drill  was 
needed  by  only  part  of  the  class.  In  such  cases  the  other 
members  of  the  class  were  free  to  continue  their  computa- 
tions. Care  was  taken  to  see  that  the  methods  used  were 


240 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


of  the  most  economic  kind.  With  the  above  exceptions 
every  problem  dealt  with  concrete  material.  Because  of 
the  estimates  of  large  areas,  populations,  and  wealth,  many 
of  the  numbers  used  were  very  large.  Care  was  taken  to 
approach  a  relative  understanding  of  such  numbers  by 
using  graphic  illustrations  and  comparisons  in  percentage. 

Classified  under  the  headings  given  in  the  ordinary  text- 
books in  arithmetic,  a  great  variety  of  processes  were  used. 
It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  list  comprises  only  such 
computations  as  were  found  necessary  to  the  solution  of  the 
problems  arising  in  the  history  outlined  in  Chapter  IV.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  force  a  correlation  in  order  to  insure 
proficiency  in  any  arithmetical  process.  The  list  of  processes 
used  follows: 

(i)  Addition,  multiplication,  subtraction,  division.  (2) 
Common  fractions  with  very  small  denominators  such  as 
one-half,  one-third,  one- fourth,  etc.  (Fractions  which  ne- 
cessitated the  use  of  large  denominators  were  always  ex- 
pressed in  decimal  form.)  (3)  Decimals,  percentage,  inter- 
est. (Study  of  the  national  bank,  economics  of  slavery,  etc.) 
(4)  Taxes,  a.  Tariff  (Jackson's  administration)  ;  b.  Direct 
(Revolutionary  war,  and  Civil  war)  ;  c.  Income  tax  (Civil 
war)  ;  d.  Internal  revenue  (Spanish- American  war,  Civil 
war).  (5)  Money,  Foreign  exchange,  a.  English  (Esti- 
mates of  Colonial  industries)  ;  b.  French  (Louisiana  Pur- 
chase). (6)  Ratio,  Comparisons.  (7)  Square  measure 
(Public  land  policy,  Railroad  grants).  (8)  Cubical  meas- 
ure (Estimation  of  a  ton  as  a  measure  of  shipping  capacity). 
(9)  Linear  measure.  (10)  Metric  system,  (n)  Profit  and 
loss  (Protective  tariff).  (12)  Square  root  (In  getting  more 
perfect  ideas  of  areas  by  comparing  them  as  to  lengths  and 
breadths).  (13)  Longitude  and  time  (Knowledge  of  the 
world  in  1492,  Magellan's  trip  aroanl  tbe  world). 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  241 

These  topics  did  not  receive  an  equal  amount  of  atten- 
tion. Some  did  not  occur  frequently  enough  to  give  exercise 
in  their  processes  equal  to  that  given  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  study.  This  is  true  of  interest,  cubical  measure,  square 
root,  cube  root,  metric  system,  and  common  fractions  with 
large  denominator.  On  the  other  hand,  the  four  funda- 
mental processes,  decimals,  fractions,  and  percentage,  were 
much  more  used  than  in  the  ordinary  course  of  study.  In 
the  processes  frequently  used,  an  unusual  degree  of  speed 
and  accuracy  was  developed. 

Geography. — A  serious  attempt  was  made  to  keep  the 
geographic  background  of  American  History  constantly  in 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  by  frequent  question  (i)  as  to  the 
location  of  places  being  discussed,  and  (2)  as  to  the  influ- 
ence of  physiography  upon  social,  economic,  and  political 
conditions.  A  great  deal  of  map-drawing  was  done  to  make 
these  ideas,  especially  those  of  location,  more  exact. 

Civics. — In  the  study  of  these  problems  practically  all 
of  the  material  given  in  the  ordinary  text-book  in  civics  was 
used.  Since,  however,  this  knowledge  was  acquired  in  con- 
nection with  governmental  problems  as  they  have  arisen  in 
the  history  of  this  country,  a  much  better  idea  of  the  actual 
workings  and  purposes  of  the  government  was  obtained  than 
could  have  been  obtained  from  the  study  of  an  elementary 
text-book  in  civics  alone.  Much  care  was  taken  to  create 
by  the  study  of  admirable  characters  on  the  one  hand,  and  of 
abhorrent  ones  on  the  other,  a  high  standard  of  civic  ideals. 

Nature  Study,  Science,  and  Physiology. — Whenever  a 
scientific  principle  or  fact  was  needed  in  the  solution  of  any 
problem,  such  a  fact  or  principle  was  studied.  Many  ex- 
periments could  not  be  performed  on  account  of  lack  of 
laboratory  facilities.  While  frequent  reference  was  made 
to  such  scientific  topics  as  are  classified  as  science,  only  such 


242  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

topics  can  be  given  as  received  considerable  study  and  labo- 
ratory methods.     Such  topics  were  as  follows : 

1.  Compass.     The  north   s,tar.     A  chart  of  the  great 
dipper  and  the  north  star  was  made  from  observation  by 
the  children  at  home. 

2.  Study  of  the  principles  of  the  water-wheel  and  the 
water  turbine. 

3.  Study  of  the  "principle  of  the  steam  engine.     An  ex- 
amination was  made  of  a  model  of  the  steam  engine  in 
the  engineering  laboratory,  University  of  Missouri.     Tele- 
phone, telegraph. 

4.  Study  of  soils,  reasons  for  cultivation,  irrigation,  fer- 
tilization. 

5.  Improvement  of  agriculture  through  scientific  knowl- 
edge, illustrations   from  plant  and  animal  breeding.     The 
museum   of   the   horticultural   building    furnished   subject- 
matter  for  the  study  of  plant  breeding.     The  farm  of  the 
agricultural  department  furnished  material  for  the  study  of 
animal  breeding. 

6.  Farming   implements  and   conveniences.     Their   im- 
provement.   Material  for  this  study  was  obtained  from  the 
agricultural  museum,  University  of  Missouri. 

7.  Light.     Reflection.     Effect  of  sunlight  as  a  sanitary 
agent. 

8.  Heat.     Conduction.     Radiation.     Absorption.     Mod- 
ern fuels.    The  thermometer. 

The  study  of  physiology  consisted  almost  entirely  of  the 
study  of  matters  of  hygiene.  Such  study  arose  from  two 
sources :  ( I )  in  connection  with  the  problems  being  dis- 
cussed, and  (2)  in  connection  with  the  incidents  of  the 
schoolroom. 

Physical  Training. — Physical  training  was  entirely  sep- 
arate from  the  study  of  United  States  history. 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  243 

Drawing. — Drawings  were  made  of  such  objects  as 
could  be  obtained  which  had  connection  with  problems  out- 
lined. 

Systematization.  —  After  considering  Horn's  experi- 
ment carefully,  the  question  arises,  Should  certain  of  the 
subjects  other  than  history  have  been  studied  systematically? 
Should  not  grammar  be  so  studied?  Or  arithmetic? 

The  argument  in  favor  is  that  if  they  are  understood, 
they  are  remembered  better,  and  if  taken  up  systematically 
they  are  better  understood.  There  seems  undoubtedly  to  be 
a  place  for  the  incidental  study  of  subjects  and  a  very  large 
place.  The  only  question  is,  Should  this  study  in  the  case 
of  certain  subjects  be  purely  incidental? 

A  later  systematization  is  of  use  for  the  sake  of  interest, 
understanding,  and  memory.  There  naturally  is  such  a  de- 
sire in  the  case  of  every  one.  But  these  systematic  studies 
should  come  late.  In  the  absence  of  statistics,  opinions  are 
allowable  and  by  virtue  of  this  liberty,  I  venture  to  state 
That  if  grammar  is  not  studied  systematically  till  the  eighth 
grade,  and  arithmetic  till  the  fourth  grade,  the  pupils  will 
know  more  about  the  subjects  and  will  be  able  to  use  them 
better  than  if  both  are  studied  from  the  first  grade  up. 

In  deciding  where  the  subjects  should  differentiate  in  the 
grades,  we  have  no  scientific  data.  It  is  all  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual opinion.  To  obviate  this,  a  careful  study  of  the 
instincts  and  tendencies  of  school  children  at  different  ages 
should  be  made  after  a  comprehensive  plan. 

The  settled  fact  from  all  these  experiments  is  this :  Much 
correlation  and  incidental  study  of  subjects  can  be  carried 
on  to  great  advantage.  It  is  more  difficult  than  to  use  the 
text-book  straight,  but  it  adds  joyousness  and  interest  to  the 
teacher's  work  and  keeps  her  young,  because  she  is  not 
getting  into  a  rut. 


244 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


REFERENCES    FOR    CLASS    READING 

Alling-Aber,  An  Experiment  in  Education,  pp.  3-24. 

Dewey,  The  School  and  Society,  pp.  46-65. 

Dopp,  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Education,  pp.  104-172. 

McMurry,  Elements  of  General  Method,  pp.  162-179. 

Parker,  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  pp.  25-46. 

Scott,  Organic  Education,  pp.  18-30  and  68  ff. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  several  examples  of  the  inability  of  pupils  to 
apply  to  life  facts  learned  in  a  subject  in  school. 

2.  How  serious  is  the  feeling  that  business  men  and 
other  adults  have  on  this  subject? 

3.  How  can  this  weakness  be  overcome? 

4.  Take   a  common   text   in  arithmetic   and  note  the 
order  of  the  topics  as  is  done  in  this  chapter  in  the  case 
of  language.     Do  you  think  this  is  better  or  worse  than  a 
good  logical  treatment? 

5.  Give  numerous  instances  of  correlation  between  les- 
sons in  the  same  subject,  between  subjects,  between  subjects 
and  the  life  of  the  pupils. 

6.  Make  arithmetic  a  theoretical  center  and  show  what 
other  subjects  can  be  used  incidentally.     Do  this  for  geog- 
raphy. 

7.  Which  in  your  opinion  is  the  best  group  of  subjects 
as  given  by  the  different  writers  quoted?     Give  reasons. 

8.  To  what  extent  could  concentration  be  worked  out 
in  the  high  school?     Give  a  theoretical  plan,  waiving  the 
question  of  the  wisdom  of  concentration. 

9.  In  the  preceding  chapter  an  illustration  was  given  in 
Section  3  from  physical  geography.     Select  a  late  text  in 
a  foreign  language  and  show  that  that  plan  is  followed. 
Does  the  method  in  the  cases  of  the  book  examined  increase 


TREATMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  245 

motive?    Why,  or  why  not,  as  the  case  may  be?    If  not,  how 
could  you  remedy  the  difficulty? 

10.  Is  it  necessary  to  have  spelling  lessons  daily?     In 
connection  with  this  read  Thorndike,  Principles  of  Teaching, 
pp.  268-273,  and  state  how  it  bears  on  the  subject. 

11.  Illustrate  in  detail  how  children  might  learn  arith- 
metic incidentally  in  the  primary  grades  while  having  no 
systematic  study  of  it. 

12.  Study  a  five-year-old  boy  and  a  five-year-old  girl  and 
determine  how  much  arithmetic  they  have  picked  up  inci- 
dentally before  going  to  school?     Is  the  amount  larger  or 
smaller  than  you  thought? 


CHAPTER   XV 

EXAMPLES  OF  METHODS  OF  SECUEING  MOTIVES 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  give  typical  illustrations  of  the 
securing  of  motive  through  problems  and  needs  in  both  the 
systematic  and  incidental  study  of  subjects. 

For  the  sake  of  ready  reference  the  method  may  be  re- 
stated as  follows :  In  order  to  raise  a  problem  or  arouse 
a  need,  it  is  necessary  first  that  there  be  some  value  in  the 
pupil's  experience  in  whose  control  he  is  interested,  second 
he  must  realize  that  he  does  not  have  adequate  control  of 
this,  and  then  he  will  have  a  motive  for  studying  new  sub- 
ject-matter. In  this,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
needs  that  arise  from  generic  values  (Chapter  X)  and  those 
that  arise  from  specific  values  (Chapter  X).  This  is  neces- 
sary because  subject-matter  is  best  learned  when  it  is  studied 
for  its  specific  intrinsic  function. 

SECTION  i.     COMPOSITION 

If  we  take  the  subject  of  composition  and  apply  this 
method  we  find  that  the  value  which  it  is  created  to  control 
is  the  communication  of  values — and  that  it  works  best  when 
the  writer  has  something  of  value,  an  audience  that  knows 
less  about  the  value  than  he  and  is  at  the  same  time  inter- 
ested in  his  value.  The  pupil  is  made  to  feel  that  he  does 
not  have  control  of  this  value;  i.  c.,  of  communicating  this 
value  by  the  simple  verifying  process  of  trying  his  state- 
ment on  his  audience  to  see  if  they  get  his  idea.  If  they  do 
not  (under  the  conditions  of  interest  in  his  own  idea)  he 

246 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  247 

will  be  anxious  to  study  devices  that  will  give  him  the 
desired  effectiveness.  At  this  point  the  various  "forms"  or 
rules  of  composition  will  be  taken  up  as  needed. 

In  this  as  in  all  cases  he  should  be  given  an  opportunity 
to  solve  the  problem  himself;  i.  e.,  remedy  his  defect.  The 
teacher  assists.  And  the  methods  used  by  good  writers  may 
be  consulted  to  see  how  they  do  it. 

Following  is  a  report  of  work  done  in  description  in  the 
University  High  School  by  Carter  Alexander.  In  all  cases 
the  pupils  were  allowed  to  select  their  own  topics.  The  au- 
dience (including  pupils  and  teacher)  listened  to  the  com- 
position read  by  the  writers  in  class  and  decided  upon  the 
effectiveness  of  the  work.  In  each  case  the  teacher  gave  no 
preliminary  lessons  on  a  topic  before  it  was  developed  in 
class.  The  pupils  were  told  to  write,  and  when  their  com- 
positions were  read  flaws  were  found,  and  rules  for  correct- 
ing each  were  developed  in  class.  Then  they  would  write 
again  and  other  flaws  would  be  found  and  corrected. 

Individual  Subjects  for  Composition. —  In  order  that 
the  writer  may  have  some  value  to  express,  of  which  the 
audience  does  not  have  control,  the  subjects  of  compositions 
may  be  chosen  by  the  writer.  If  all  write  upon  the  same 
theme  it  follows,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  teacher  cannot 
be  sure  that  it  is  of  value  to  the  writers,  and,  on  the  othei 
hand,  one  incentive  to  writing  is  taken  away,  because  every* 
body  is  supposed  to  know  as  much  about  the  topic  as  doe^ 
the  writer.  Whether  or  not  the  topic  be  chosen  by  the 
writer,  it  must  be  a  valuable  one  to  him.  In  order  to  secure 
this,  one  rule  may  be  laid  down:  let  the  writers  choose  a 
superlative  experience — the  funniest,  the  most  thrilling,  the 
saddest,  or  the  most  peculiar.  The  writer  must  also  think 
of  his  audience,  and  select  among  his  valuable  experiences 
those  which  he  believes  will  interest  them. 


248  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

A  Genuine  Audience. — In  order  to  get  an  audience  that 
will  be  below  him  in  a  knowledge  of  the  thing  he  is  to 
convey,  the  whole  class  should  be  the  audience.  He  may 
feel  that  he  cannot  tell  the  teacher  anything,  but  he  is  surer 
of  the  class.  In  addition  to  this  the  teacher  should  culti- 
vate the  attitude  that  makes  the  pupils  feel  that  they  can 
give  him  things  which  he  does  not  already  know.  For 
undoubtedly  they  are  often  in  a  position  to  do  so  in  con- 
nection with  some  matter  of  peculiar  interest  to  them. 

In  such  a  situation  it  is  only  necessary  to  get  the  writer 
to  feel  that  he  cannot  convey  his  meaning  efficiently.  In 
getting  him  to  realize  this  and  thereby  feel  the  need  for 
the  forms  of  language,  the  audience,  including  the  teacher, 
assists.  It  can  decide  upon  his  effectiveness  as  readers  de- 
cide upon  the  effectiveness  of  a  novelist.  If  they  make  him 
aware  of  the  fact  that  he  has  not  given  them  something 
worth  while,  he  will  be  conscious  that  he  has  not  accom- 
plished his  purpose. 

With  the  need  thus  aroused  the  teacher  sets  to  work 
with  the  class  to  devise  a  scheme  for  getting  control  of 
the  process  of  communication.  In  almost  every  case  the 
teacher  can,  by  a  "common  sense  method,"  get  the  children 
to  state  how  to  do  it.  And  when  they  have  found  it  they 
have  struck  upon  the  form  or  principle  of  language  which 
the  race  has  already  worked  out. 

Report  of  a  Series  of  .Lessons. — The  following  is  an 
example  of  how  certain  language  forms  used  in  descrip- 
tion were  taught :  These  forms  were  the  fundamental  image, 
point  of  view,  details,  choice  of  words,  figures  of  speech, 
character  description,  and  impressiveness.1 

Description. — The  class  had  been  working  upon  nar- 

1  Taught  by  Carter  Alexander  in  Teachers'  College  High  School, 
University  of  Missouri. 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  249 

ration  and  had  found  that  whenever  their  narrative  required 
descriptions  the  results  were  very  unsatisfactory.  So,  with 
the  weakness  thus  made  evident,  and  their  main  problem — 
that  of  becoming  efficient  in  writing  descriptions — being 
clearly  in  mind,  they  turned  to  a  study  of  description. 

The  first  thing  the  teacher  did  was  to  have  the  class 
describe  a  thing  without  any  directions  except  that  they 
were  to  choose  some  one  of  six  buildings  on  the  campus, 
with  the  understanding  that  they  were  to  make  the  picture 
clear  enough  for  the  others  to  see  the  thing  described. 
These  themes  were  read. in  class.  The  students  criticized 
them  on  the  basis  of  clearness  of  pictures.  The  audience 
felt  that  they  could  not  get  a  clear  image  of  some  build- 
ings, while  they  could  of  others,  but  that  they  did  not 
see  why  this  was  so,  except  that  the  good  themes  seemed 
to  follow  some  plan  of  description,  and  4>ad  ones  did  not. 

The  General  Outline. — The  problem  then  became  that 
of  discovering  what  made  certain  themes  good.  The  teacher 
helped  in  this  by  exposing  a  picture  to  them  several  times 
in  order  to  show  them  how  things  are  really  seen.  At  the 
first  exposure  they  got  only  an  idea  of  the  general  outline, 
and  at  each  succeeding  exposure  they  were  able  to  add  de- 
tails. In  this  way  the  students  were  able  to  formulate  the 
statement  that  in  description  one  should  give  a  general  idea 
to  the  audience  first.  They  had  thus  arrived  at  the  funda- 
mental image.  Then  they  went  to  Hawthorne  to  see  how 
he  handled  the  fundamental  image.  They  next  were  asked 
to  write  themes  in  which  they  paid  particular  attention  to 
this  principle.  These  themes  were  read  in  class. 

The  Point  of  View. — The  audience  found  that  in 
describing  a  scene  they  had  mentioned  things  that  could  not 
be  seen  from  one  standpoint ;  e.  g.,  describing  the  outside 
and  inside  of  a  church  in  the  same  picture.  Again  they 


250 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


went  to  Hawthorne  to  see  what  he  did  with  the  standpoint, 
and  found  that  he  described  from  one  point  of  view,  or  if 
he  described  from  more  than  one  he  made  the  reader  aware 
of  the  change.  Then  they  wrote  themes  emphasizing  the 
point  of  view  and  fundamental  image. 

Details. — During  all  the  writing  of  descriptions  the 
students  had  been  worried  about  details,  saying  that  they 
became  confused  about  what  to  put  in  and  what  to  leave 
out,  and  particularly  in  what  order  to  place  the  items.  This 
created  a  demand  for  a  lesson  on  details.  They  discussed 
the  matter  themselves,  and  later  consulted  Hawthorne. 
Then  other  themes  were  written  and  read  in  class. 

When  these  were  read  the  audience  brought  out  the  fact 
that  while  some  themes  had  a  good  point  of  view  and  han- 
dled details  well,  the  impression  wras  still  flat  and  unin- 
teresting. 

Effectiveness. — The  teacher  then  called  up  instances 
in  which  the  students  had  used  effective  descriptive  words 
and  phrases,  and  said  that  they  would  study  two  methods  of 
creating  effectiveness,  words  and  comparisons.  There- 
upon they  went  to  Hawthorne  again  to  see  how  he  used 
these  effectively.  Again  themes  were  written  and  read  in 
class.  Tfie  teacher  once  again  set  the  problem,  this  time 
the  study  of  comparison  from  a  little  different  point  of 
view ;  viz.,  figures  of  speech.  Again  they  went  to  Haw- 
thorne, and  in  addition  studied  some  faulty  figures  in  order 
by  contrast  to  bring  out  the  point  that  figures  of  speech 
should  be  used  only  when  they  made  descriptions  more  ef- 
fective, and  that  if  a  figure  of  speech  attracted  attention 
to  itself  it  did  not  enhance  the  whole  description.  Then 
once  more  they  wrote  themes,  and  again  read  them  in  class. 

Describing  Persons. — Previously  the  students  in  writ- 
ing themes  had  become  conscious  of  their  inability  to 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  251 

describe  people  as  well  as  scenes.  The  teacher  referred  to 
this  and  directed  attention  to  description  of  people.  They 
consulted  Hawthorne  to  see  his  method  and  wrote  themes  in 
which  they  described  teachers  or  pupils  in  the  school  but 
not  in  the  class.  They  did  this  in  order  that  the  audience 
might  have  a  chance  to  decide  upon  the  truthfulness  of  the 
description.  This  proved  intensely  interesting. 

Specific  Impression.  —  In  this  lesson  the  audience 
observed  that  while  some  descriptions  were  impressive  in 
parts,  many  of  them  did  not  have  a  central  impression  which 
they  wished  to  convey.  They  then  went  to  Hawthorne  and 
to  George  Eliot  to  see  if  they  had  such,  and  how  they 
seemed  to  secure  it.  They  thereupon  wrote  themes  in  which 
they  endeavored  to  convey  specific  impressions,  such  as  the 
grandeur  of  Academic  Hall,  the  disorder  of  a  room,  fear 
at  night,  pity,  etc. 

Conclusion. — This  was  all  the  time  that  the  students 
were  able  to  devote  to  description.  They  returned  to  the 
original  narratives  upon  which  they  had  failed,  and  rewrote 
them  to  make  them  more  effective. 

The  teacher  believes  that  in  going  over  this  course  another 
time  he  would  introduce  the  specific  impression  earlier,  as  a 
means  of  controlling  details  in  the  image,  and  as  a  means 
toward  making  the  theme  less  flat  and  uninteresting. 

This  series  of  lessons  seems  to  be  particularly  valuable 
as  showing  a  method  of  so  handling  a  course  that  the  class 
itself  will  feel  that  their  work  is  not  satisfactory,  that  they 
will  then  take  hold  of  the  problem  of  making  it  more  satis- 
factory, and  that  they  will  thereby  feel  the  force  and  see  the 
pertinence  of  the  principles  of  composition. 

Composition  in  the  Grades. — It  is  possible  and  feasible 
to  teach  composition  in  the  grades  without  a  regular  com- 
position period.  In  doing  this  the  teacher  may  correct  com' 


252  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

mon  errors  as  they  arise.  For  instance,  in  oral  work  the 
pupils  may  not  be  able  to  use  gone  and  went  or  saw  or  seen 
correctly.  When  this  is  observed,  the  class  may  spend  a 
few  minutes  studying  this  and  may  even  have  a  home 
assignment  upon  it  and  the  teacher  will  later  catch  up  the 
errors  when  they  occur  again.  In  written  work  the  teacher 
may  observe  errors  and  treat  them  similarly. 

Whether  a  separate  period  is  used  for  composition  work 
or  not  the  teacher  should  ascertain  the  commonest  errors  of 
all  the  pupils  and  use  these  as  the  basis  for  language  study. 
Instances  should  be  collected  from  their  own  speech  and 
writing  and  particularly  those  in  which  they  have  been  mis- 
understood because  of  incorrectness.  There  is  a  tremendous 
advantage  in  using  the  pupils'  own  errors.  They  have  a 
keen  interest  in  knowing  and  using  the  correct  form.  The 
teacher  is  saved  much  worry  and  expostulating.  He  takes 
the  attitude :  "Here  is  what  you  said ;  What  are  you  going 
to  do  about  it  ?"  I  remember  ^very  well  one  boy's  saying 

under  these  conditions,  "Why,  Miss ,  7  didn't  say  that, 

I  never  do."  He  was  in  a  very  teachable  mood  when  the 
teacher  showed  him  his  written  work  containing  the  identical 
error. 

It  is  stated  in  a  previous  chapter  (p.  226)  that  the  teacher 
can  psychologize  subject-matter  effectively  only  when  the 
peculiarities  of  each  individual  class  are  taken  into  account. 
The  language  text  is  of  use  as  a  handy  drill  exercise  book 
in  which  the  common  errors  can  be  arranged  in  systematic 
form,  the  teacher  selecting  the  topics  as  they  are  needed 
in  his  class.  To-day  the  rule  studied  may  be  on  page  24, 
to-morrow  on  page  159,  and  the  following  day  on  page  47. 

Application  of  Composition. — Incidental  study  of  Jan- 
guage  should  be  carried  on  after,  or  while  composition  is 
being  studied  in  a  separate  period.  In  high  school  work  too 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  253 

little  of  this  is  done.  What  is  required  is  that  the  teachers 
of  the  subjects  other  than  English  should  insist  upon  as  high 
standards  of  English  as  does  the  composition  teacher.  And 
time  should  be  taken  in  a  physics  class  to  note  common 
errors.  If  a  pupil  in  physics  is  a  serious  offender  because 
of  negligence  or  poor  training  he  should  be  put  into  a 
hospital  class  in  English  composition  where  he  can  receive 
special  attention  and  assistance.  Moreover,  teachers  of  all 
subjects  should  report  to  the  composition  teachers  the 
commonest  errors  they  find,  in  order  that  this  teacher  may 
be  guided  in  arranging  and  emphasizing  his  topics  and 
treatment  of  the  subject. 

SECTION  2.    READING 

Oral  reading  has  a  function  similar  to  that  of  language, 
but  differing  in  that  the  reader  transmits  to  his  audience 
the  thing  that  he  thinks  valuable  expressed  in  the  language 
of  someone  else.  But  before  he  can  read  effectively  he  must 
make  the  value  his  own,  and  consequently  in  oral  reading 
the  situation  is  the  same  as  in  language. 

The  Motive  in  Oral  Reading. — To  build  up  the  motive 
for  reading  the  reader  must  feel  that  he  has  something 
worth  reading  with  which  his  audience  is  unacquainted. 
Reading  is  likely  to  lack  motive  if  everybody  reads  from 
the  same  book,  and  if  each  reader  knows  that  everyone 
else  knows  as  much  about  it  as  he  does,  probably  more  if 
he  reads  poorly.  To  obviate  this,  and  to  give  a  motive  for 
reading,  three  devices  may  be  mentioned :  First,  the  pupils 
may  be  allowed  regularly  to  bring  to  class  clippings,  jokes, 
short  stories,  sidelights  on  other  lessons,  etc.,  and  read 
these.  Second,  the  class  may  regularly  be  divided  into  two 
sections,  and  each  section  be  allowed  to  have  a  different  text- 
book. Then  as  each  section  reads,  the  other  section  consti- 


254  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

tutes  an  audience.  Third,  pupils  in  the  study  of  other  sub- 
jects, when  exact  information  upon  points  of  dispute  or 
methods  of  procedure  is  lacking,  may  be  allowed  to  turn 
to  their  books  to  find  and  read  the  sentences  that  will  give 
the  desired  information. 

How  the  Audience  Helps. — To  introduce  the  forms  of 
good  reading,  such  as  enunciation,  pronunciation,  and  carry- 
ing quality  of  the  voice,  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  the 
reader  aware  of  his  deficiencies  by  appealing  to  the  audi- 
ence. For  instance,  the  other  section  of  the  class  may  re- 
port that  they  cannot  hear  the  reader.  Then  he  has  a 
motive  for  learning  to  speak  distinctly  because  he  "wants 
the  audience  to  hear  the  fine  story  he  is  reading.  Rules 
for  speaking  distinctly  will  be  forthcoming  from  the  teacher 
and  the  class. 

Silent  Reading. — In  silent  reading,  where  the  pupil  is 
reading  to  get  the  idea  rather  than  to  convey  it  to  others, 
conditions  are  reversed.  Here  the  author  has  the  thing  of 
value,  and  the  reader  does  not  have  it  but  is  interested  in  it. 
Motives  for  studying  the  forms  of  silent  reading  easily 
follow  from  analogy  with  the  foregoing.  And  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  demand  in  life  is  for  ability  to  read 
silently.  Too  little  recognition  is  given  to  the  need  of  train- 
ing in  the  ability  to  get  the  thought. 

"The  best  reading  that  the  writer  has  ever  heard  in  a  third 
grade  was  done  by  children  who  read  to  each  other.  They 
used  the  readers  in  the  school,  and  books  from  home  and 
from  the  public  library.  Each  child  was  permitted  to  make 
a  selection  and  submit  it  to  the  teacher  for  approval.  Then 
came  the  period  of  preparation,  extending  often  over  two 
or  three  days  or  even  a  week.  During  this  time  the  child 
was  supposed  to  study  the  selection  carefully,  learn  the  pro- 
nunciation of  difficult  words,  and  practice  reading  the  selec- 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES 


255 


tion  so  that  he  might  give  pleasure  to  those  for  whom  the 
reading  was  done.  The  one  good  reason  for  reading  aloud 
is  to  read  to  an  audience  who  cares  to  hear  what  you  have 
to  offer.  These  children  were  participating  in  a  social  situ- 
ation which  demanded  much  of  them,  and  they  enjoyed  the 
hard  work  which  was  necessary  because  the  motive  back 
of  it  all  was  genuine."1 

SECTION  3.    WRITING 

The  Function  of  Writing. — Writing  is  an  offshoot  of 
language.  It  has  the  same  general  function — to  communi- 
cate things  of  value  to  others  who  do  not  have  them.  Its 
specific  function  is  to  attend  to  the  form  of  letters.  Evi- 
dently the  forms  of  letters  should  be  drilled  upon  when 
the  pupil  sees  that  he  cannot  make  his  meaning  clear  be- 
cause his  writing  is  illegible.  Legibility  is  the  final  standard. 
If  he  sees  that  something  he  wishes  to  say  is  misunder- 
stood, or  is  understood  with  difficulty  because  he  writes 
illegibly,  he  will  have  a  motive  for  studying  the  writing 
forms. 

A  Motive  for  Practice. — The  following  device,  which 
may  be  used  from  the  sixth  grade  up,  makes  the  writer 
conscious  of  his  deficiencies  and  anxious  to  remedy  them. 
Suppose  we  go  on  the  assumption  that  a  child  whose  writing 
is  reasonably  legible  does  not  need  to  have  special  writing 
lessons.  This  is  a  fair  assumption.  Then  make  the  writing 
period  one  in  which  only  those  who  write  their  composition, 
arithmetic,  geography,  or  history  work  illegibly  shall  re- 
ceive special  instruction,  and  as  soon  as  the  writing  in  these 
subjects  becomes  legible  they  \vill  be  excused  from  the 
writing  class.  This  has  several  advantages.  It  raises  the 
general  tone  of  writing.  It  makes  those  who  write  illegibly 

1  Strayer,  Brief  Course  in  Teaching  Process,  pp..  133-4. 


256  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

feel  a  need  for  writing  legibly.  Moreover,  it  provides  that 
since  only  a  few  of  the  pupils,  and  these  the  poor  writers, 
are  in  the  class,  the  teacher  can  spend  his  time  to  better 
advantage  in  teaching  them. 

SECTION  4.    HISTORY 

In  the  chronological  study  of  history  the  problem  of  the 
new  unit  usually  can  be  made  to  rise  out  of  the  previous 
units.  For  if  there  is  a  central  problem  running  through 
the  whole  period  of  history,  each  event  is  usually  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  nation  to  solve  that  problem  which 
though  in  reality  always  the  same,  presents  new  phases,  be- 
cause some  new  factors  come  in  to  disturb  the  condition:-: 
already  present. 

This  will  be  at  once  evident  if  we  notice  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  following  three  lessons.  We  are  to  presuppose 
that  the  function  of  the  subject-matter  upon  the  Revolution- 
ary Period  is  to  show  the  relation  of  that  period  to  the 
growth  of  the  Union.  Similarly,  the  function  of  each  unit 
within  the  period  must  be  to  contribute  to  this  main  func- 
tion. It  will  be  observed  in  the  lessons  selected  that  the 
subject-matter  is  organized  according  to  three  main  divi- 
sions :  ( i )  The  conditions  giving  rise  to  the  event,  which 
are  subdivided  into  (a)  old  conditions  and  (b)  new  fac- 
tors, and  these,  again,  into  subdivisions  for  and  against 
union.  The  new  factor  raises  the  problem.  (2)  The  event 
which  results  as  an  attempt  to  solve  the  problem.  (3)  The 
success  of  the  solution  (in  terms  of  the  main  problem). 
This  division  has  one  advantage  over  the  conventional  di- 
vision— cause,  events,  result — in  that  it  focalizes  the  atten- 
tion upon  the  problem  aspect  of  history  and  tends  to  empha- 
size the  continuous  persistence  of  the  problem  studied. 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  257 

LESSON  I.     ALBANY  CONFERENCE,  1754. 

A.  Conditions  giving  rise  to  the  conference. 

1.  Old  conditions. 

(a)  Working  against  union — in  general,  local  interests. 

(1)  Religious  differences — Catholics,  Episcopalians, 

Puritans,  and  Baptists  viewed  each  other 
with  intolerance. 

(2)  Political  differences. 

i.  Town  government  in  the  North,  county  in 
South,  and  mixed  in  Middle  States. 

ii.  Different  classes  of  Colonies — royal,  charter, 
and  proprietary. 

(3)  Social  differences. 

i.  Holders  of  large  estates  in  the  South,  and 
small  farmers  in  the  North. 

ii.  Cavalier  ideals  in  South,  Puritan  ideals  in 
North. 

iii.  Wide  differences  in  wealth'  and  social  position 
in  South,  small  differences  in  North. 

iv.  In  South  only  industry  agriculture,  in  North 
industries  varied,  both  in  and  outside  of 
the  home. 

v.  Lack  of  transportation  facilities  tended  to  em- 
phasize isolation. 

(b)  Working  for  union — necessity  for  defense  against 

the  French  and  Indians,  for  which  purpose 
conferences  were  called,  coalitions  formed 
from  time  to  time. 

2.  New  factor  (giving  rise  to  new  form  of  problem) — 

serious  nature  of  hostility  between  the  colo- 
nies and  the  French  and  Indians  immediately 


258  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

preceding    the    French    and    Indian    war, 

1754-63. 

B.  Albany  Conference,  1754.     This  came  as  a  solution  to 

the  problem  of  defense,  and  was  called  at 
the  request  of  the  mother  country. 

1.  Franklin's  plan — Colonies  should  combine  for 

(a)  Defense  against  incursions, 

(b)  Regulation  of  Indian  affairs, 

(c)  Levying  of  taxes. 

2.  Made  treaty  with  Iroquois. 

C.  Success  of  Conference. 

1.  Colonies,  still  afraid  of  loss  of  independence,  looked 

with   indifference  upon  proposals  to  com- 
bine (too  much  royal  prerogative). 

2.  British  government  indifferent  because  of  danger  of 

thereby  revealing  to  the  Colonies  their  own 
strength  (too  democratic). 

3.  Brought  the  idea  of  union  into  the  realm  of  practical 

politics. 

LESSON  II.    THE  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR,  1756-63. 

A.  Conditions  giving  rise  to  the  war. 

1.  Old  conditions. 

(a)  English  policy  of  territorial  expansion. 

(b)  French  policy  of  territorial  expansion. 

2.  New  factor — giving  rise  to  problem. 

Coalition  of  England  with  Frederick  the  Great  because 
of  Hanoverian  entanglements,  and  coalition 
of  French  with  foes  of  Frederick — war  be- 
tween Frederick  and  his  foes. 

B.  The  Seven  Years'  war  (solution  of  problem  of  suprem-> 

acy — in  America), 
i.  Campaign  against  Duquesne — giving  key  to  the  West. 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES 


259 


2.  Campaign  against  Louisburg — giving  naval  control  of 

the  St.  Lawrence. 

3.  Campaign  against  Quebec — giving  control  of  Canada. 
C.  Success  of  the  war  (in  terms  of  the  main  problem). 

1.  Union  was  facilitated  by 

(a)  Active  feeling  of  co-operation  among  Colonies, 

(b)  Consciousness  of  military  strength. 

2.  Union  was  retarded  by  freedom  from  invasion. 

LESSON  III.     STAMP  ACT  CONGRESS,  1765. 

A.  Conditions  giving  rise  to  the  Stamp  Act  Congress. 

1.  Old  conditions. 

(a)  Factors  working  for  separation. 

(1)  As  in  Lesson  I. 

(2)  Freedom  from  invasion  (Lesson  II). 

(b)  Factors  working  for  union — as  mentioned  in  C.  i 

in  Lesson  II. 

2.  New  factors — giving  rise  to  problem. 

(a)  The  mother  country  began  to  enforce  the  policy 

that  the  Colonies  exist  for  the  benefit  of  the 
mother  country. 

(1)  Enforcement  of  Navigation  Act,  which  led  to 

(2)  Writs  of  Assistance,  1761,  which  were  obnox- 

ious because  subversive  of  personal  liberty. 

(b)  Parson's  Clause,  1761,  an  unpopular  assertion  of 

the  royal  prerogative. 

(c)  Demands  on  the  part  of  the  mother  country  that 

the  Colonies  help  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War. 

(i)  Difference  of  opinion — the  mother  country 
claimed  that  the  war  protected  the  Colo- 
nies, while  the  Colonies  claimed  that  the  war 


260  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

was  a  part  of  the  mother  country's  imperial 
policy. 

(2)  Stamp  Act — the  instrument  by  which  the  mother 

country  sought  to  enforce  the  demand. 

(3)  Serious  objection  by  the  Colonies  on  the  ground 

that  there  should  not  be  taxation  without 
representation  (riots,  formation  of  patriotic 
societies,  etc.). 

B.  Stamp  Act  Congress,  1765   (an  attempt  to  remedy  the 

difficulty). 

1.  Drew  up  petitions  to  the  king. 

2.  Made  Declaration  of  Rights  to  parliament. 

C.  Success  (in  terms  of  the  main  problem). 

1.  Colonies  act  together  again  for  a  common  purpose  and 

upon  their  own  initiative. 

2.  Colonies    gained    increasing    consciousness    of  *power 

(with  repeal  of  Stamp  Act). 

Special  Occasions. — In  the  lower  grades  history  is  studied 
incidentally  and  a  good  deal  of  history  is  learned  in  that 
way.  Thanksgiving  Day,  other  national  holidays,  birthdays 
of  great  men  are  made  occasions  for  learning  historical  facts 
and  studying  historical  material.  These  present  events. of 
great  interest  to  pupils  and  create  motives  for  the  study  of 
these  disconnected  stories.  Moral  errors  often  are  cured 
by  historical  accounts  of  good  men,  and  from  these  various 
sources  the  pupil,  by  the  time  he  has  reached  the  fourth 
grade,  has  quite  a  considerable  fund  of  history. 

Stories. — When  history  is  begun  in  the  fifth  grade  it  is 
not  feasible  to  have  the  connected  treatment  given  in  the 
foregoing  part  of  this  section.  It  is  there  at  best  a  collec- 
tion of  rather  disconnected  narrative  chiefly  stories  of  great 
men  and  great  events. 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  261 

But  in  that  case  each  story  can  be  organized  closely  within 
itself.  It  can  be  gone  into  in  such  detail  as  to  give  the  feel 
of  the  times.  This  is  very  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the 
Colonial  period  by  Miss  Dopp  in  The  Place  of  Industries  in 
Education,  pp.  192  to  242.  Here  innumerable  closely  re? 
lated  problems  grow  out  of  the  story.  Until  a  whole  field  of 
history  can  be  studied  systematically  the  work  of  the  grades 
up  to  that  time  should  study  typical  periods  systematically 
and  in  detail.  Better  a  few  topics  in  history  made  vital 
than  many  skimmed  over  for  the  superficial  facts. 

Present  Problems  as  a  Motive. — On  many  occasions  pres- 
ent day  problems  and  interests  may  give  the  motive  for  his- 
torical study.  In  high  school  the  tariff,  the  negro,  the  In- 
dian, the  Panama  Canal,  arbitration,  the  Japanese  war  scare 
bug-a-boo,  are  often  of  such  immediate  interest  as  to  lead 
to  the  investigation  of  their  origin  and  history.  In  fact 
any  intelligent  understanding  of  the  problems  necessitates 
an  historical  study.  Probably  the  first  half  year  in  high 
school  history  can  with  advantage  be  spent  in  an  historical 
study  of  modern  problems  as  an  introduction  to  history 
which  may  then  begin  systematically  with  ancient  history. 
Certainly  modern  problems  and  current  events  should  run 
along  parallel  with  every  history  course. 

SECTION   5.     ARITHMETIC 

Arithmetic  may  be  studied  incidentally  both  before  and 
after  a  systematic  study  has  taken  place.  Systematic  arith- 
metic should  probably  not  begin  before  the  fourth  grade; 
for  it  seems  clear  that  if  it  is  begun  in  that  grade  the  pupils 
will  have  a  better  hold  upon  it  at  the  end  of  the  seventh 
grade  than  if  they  began  in  the  first  grade. 

If  the  subject  is  studied  incidentally  in  the  lower  grades 


202  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  pupils  get  what  arithmetic  they  need.    And  because  they 
need  it  they  are  likely  to  understand  it  better. 

Incidental  Work.  —  If  arithmetic  is  taught  inciden- 
tally it  is  an  easy'' matter  to  secure  motives  for  its  study. 
For  instance,  in  the  game  of  "bean  bag"  in  the  primary 
grades,  where  the  pupils  try  to  throw  four  bags,  say,  through 
a  hoop,  a  motive  for  addition  may  be  secured.  Each  of  the 
children  may  be  allowed  to  put  down  in  a  separate  column 
on  the  board  the  number  of  bags  he  throws  through  the 
hoop,  thus  giving  practice  in  counting  and  making  figures. 
After  going  three  times  around  the  class  the  following  table 
might  result: 


Willie 

John 

Susie 

Tom 

4 

2 

3 

I 

3 

i 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

4 

Then  the  question  will  be  asked,  "Who  is  ahead?"  Here 
is  a  strong  motive  for  adding,  for  this  question  cannot  be 
settled  till  the  results  are  added.  ' 

Or,  again,  in  the  construction  of  a  flower  bed  all  sorts 
of  arithmetic  facts  will  be  necessary  before  the  bed  is  laid 
off,  and  each  pupil  given  his  proper  share.  Here  also  the 
motive  is  strong,  and  the  study  of  the  necessary  arithmetic 
will  be  carried  on  with  vigor. 

Isolated  Arithmetic. — But  when  arithmetic  is  taught 
as  a  separate  study,  and  situations  have  to  be  found  which 
will  require  the  use  of  its  principles  in  order  to  get  control 
of  the  situations  for  which  the  race  has  constructed  them, 
it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  find  practical  situations  such 
as  can  be  found  if  it  is  taught  incidentally,  or  such  as  we 
have  cited  in  language,  writing,  and  reading.  Then  the 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  263 

teacher  has  to  fall  back  upon  generic  values,  upon  immediate 
interest,  or  upon  imaginary  situations.  However,  in  all  cases 
in  which  an  appropriate  imaginary  situation  can  be  devised 
it  should  be  built  up.  A  few  examples  may  be  given. 

Carrying  in  Addition. — Some  teachers  teach  carrying 
in  addition  by  dramatizing  bookkeeping.  The  children  are 
bookkeepers  for  the  Chicago  Flagstaff  Company.  The  staffs 
for  shipping  are  done  up  in  bundles  of  ten.  Three  dealers  in 
Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  send  in  orders,  one  for  one  bundle  and 
six  separate  staffs;  one  for  two  bundles  and  four  separate 
ones-;  and  the  last  for  one  bundle  and  five  separate  ones. 
They  are  all  to  be  done  up  in  bundles  to  be  broken  in  Oska- 
•loosa.  How  many  bundles?  The  value  here  is  to  do  the 
work  of  the  "bookkeepers"  and  to  order  the  bundling  to 
be  done.  The  carrying  must  be  performed  before  this  can 
be  done. 

Business  Forms. — Again,  by  establishing  a  "bank"  in 
the  school  and  allowing  the  pupils  to  carry  it  on,  at  first, 
without  instruction,  it  is  possible  to  have  them  feel  the  need 
for  written  promissory  notes,  for  receipts,  or  for  checks. 
These  will,  then,  be  better  understood,  because  the  pupils 
are  conscious  of  how  things  are  going  wrong  when  they 
are  not  used,  and  will  "discover"  them  as  means  for  keeping 
correct  accounts. 

Cancellation. — An  example  of  a  very  good  method  of 
introducing  the  rules  for  testing  for  factors  by  sight  is  the 
following,"  which  illustrates  how  a  practical  situation  may  be 
created  when  arithmetic  is  studied  as  a  separate  subject. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  rule  of  divisibility  by  three.  We 
know  that  if  the  sum  of  the  digits  is  divisible  by  three  the 
number  is  divisible  by  three.  The  function  is  to  give 
rapidity  in  cancellation.  We  may  teach  this  by  appealing 
to  immediate  interest,  and  state  the  aim,  "Let  us  find  a  quick 


264  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

way  of  telling  when  a  number  is  divisible  by  three."  But 
it  is  more  effective  to  arouse  a  need  for  it.  This  may  be 
done  as  follows:  The  children  are  supposed  to  think  that 
rapidity  in  cancellation  is  worth  while.  To  bring  this  value 
actively  into  consciousness  give  a  few  exercises,  such  as 
27  19  24 
— ,  — ,  — ,  working  for  rapidity.  The  teacher's  next  prob- 

54    57    36 

lem  is  to  make  the  children  see  that  they  are  not  so  rapid  as 
they  might  be ;  that  is,  that  they  have  not  full  control  of  the 
value.  This  may  be  done  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Perhaps  a 

729 

particularly  difficult  problem  may  be  given,  such  as  . 

2181 

While  the  children  are  laboring  with  it  the  teacher  may  work 
it  out  on  the  board,  and  then  before  they  have  finished 
may  say,  "I  have  already  finished ;  you  are  slow,"  etc.  And 
may  explain  further,  "I  didn't  do  it  more  rapidly  because  I 
am  a  better  divider  than  you  are.  I  have  a  short  way." 
This  will  make  them  conscious  of  slowness,  and  will  give 
them  a  stronger  motive  for  learning  the  rule  than  does  mere 
immediate  interest.  The  time  spent  in  securing  a  motive  is 
well  spent. 

SECTION  6.     PHYSICS 

There  is  probably  no  subject  more  capable  of  interested 
pursuit  than  is  physics.  The  pupils  are  surrounded  with 
levers,  bridges,  houses,  door-bells,  automobiles,  eye-glasses, 
and  thousands  of  other  things  whose  inner  workings  are 
explained  by  physics. 

But  most  physics  text-books  are  so  much  concerned  with 
giving  a  systematic  and  mathematical  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject that  the  pupils  are  overwhelmed  and  discouraged. 

The  teacher  should  do  this:     First,  cut  away  from  the 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  MOTIVES  265 

order  of  the  text,  disregard  the  mathematical  explanations 
that  explain  principles  to  the  teacher  but  obscure  them  for 
the  pupils.  Take  up  objects  such  as  those  mentioned  above 
and  explain  them.  This  would  not  be  systematic,  but  it 
would  be  intelligible.  Then,  second,  after  covering  the  prin- 
ciples incidentally  as  suggested,  the  latter  part  of  the  course 
can  be  given  to  a  systematic  study  of  the  text.  Perhaps  two 
months  out  of  nine  will  be  sufficient  for  this,  and  when  the 
pupils  come  to  it  they  will  be  able  to  understand  what  is 
being  done. 

>  -     REFERENCES    FOR    CLASS    READING 

Hall,  Adolescence,  Vol.  n,  Chap.  12. 

Dopp,    Place    of   Industries    in    Elementary   Education, 
pp.  192-242. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Work  out  method"  of  securing  motives  in  three  con- 
secutive lessons  in  the  systematic  study  of  geography,  arith- 
metic, physiology,  physics,  zoology,  botany,  chemistry,  draw- 
ing, woodworking,  cooking,  Latin,  French,  German,  reading, 
or  such  of  these  as  you  are  familiar  with. 

2.  State  the  practical  problems  that  might  be  used  as  a 
point  of  attack  in  studying  the  following  subjects  incident- 
ally:    civics,    physiology   through    hygiene    and    sanitation, 
botany  through  agriculture,  physics  through  its  applications, 
chemistry  through  cooking,  color  through  house  decoration, 
physical .  geography,    writing,    music,    and    woodworking. 
Clothe  these  problems  in  as  catchy  language  as  is  consonant 
with  their  true  meaning. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

FOBMS   OF   INSTRUCTION 

SECTION  i.     "TELLING" 

Definition. — When  the  teacher  "tells"  pupils  a  fact  or 
principle,  what  he  does  is  to  give  them  a  ready-made  method 
of  control.  For  instance,  when  a  child  does  not  know  how 
to  make  a  certain  stitch  in  sewing,  the  teacher  may  say  to 
her,  "I  will  show  you  how."  In  cooking,  the  teacher  may 
explain  and  show  the  pupils  how  to  cook  starches.  In 
painting,  the  pupils  may  be  shown  how  to  hold  the  brush 
and  how  to  mix  their  paints.  In  arithmetic,  the  children 
may  be  shown  the  mechanical  forms  of  solution,  or  they 
may  be  given  the  formula  for  the  area  of  a  circle.  In 
writing,  the  forms  of  the  letters  are  given,  and  in  spelling, 
the  order  of  the  letters.  In  history,  facts  are  told,  descrip- 
tions given,  pictures  shown. 

It  is  evident  from  a  survey  of  a  mass  of  methods  of  which 
these  are  types,  that  much  has  to  be  given  to  pupils  ready 
made.  *"It  is  clear  that  progress  is  rendered  possible  by 
the  fact  that  we  may  assimilate  and  turn  to  our  own  use 
certain  of  the  judgments  that  have  been  worked  out  by  our 
predecessors.  In  this  way  we  profit,  not  only  by  our  own 
experience,  but  also  by  the  experience  of  others.  If  this 
were  not  the  case,  each  would  have  to  repeat,  step  by  step, 
the  monotonous  history  of  those  who  had  preceded  him, 
subject  to  the  same  sources  of  error  and  making  all  the 

1  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  p.  257. 

266 


FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  267 

mistakes  and  blunders  that  they  had  made.  But  through 
the  organization  of  experiences  in  judgment  form,  the  mis- 
takes are  gradually  eliminated.  Each  generation  inherits 
from  its  predecessors  innumerable  systems  of  judgments 
which  represent  years,  perhaps  centuries,  of  selection  and 
elimination.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that,  for  every 
fact  and  principle  that  survives,  a  thousand  false  judgments 
and  erroneous  principles  have  been  eliminated.  The  former 
constitute  our  intellectual  heritage;  the  latter  have  been 
forgotten." 

Advantages  of  "Telling."  —  Ready-made  methods  of 
control  have  a  large  place  and  great  Value  in  education  and 
life.  When  the  feet  are  to  be  kept  dry  and  warm,  ready- 
made  shoes  are  bought.  When  the  house  is  to  be  lighted, 
we  turn  the  switch.  When  our  health  is  to  be  improved,  we 
get  some  medicine  from  the  doctor.  When  we  wish  to  visit 
a  friend,  we  make  use  of  the  electric  car.  When  we  wish 
to  paint  the  house,  we  buy  prepared  paints.  When  a  man 
desires  to  appease  his  hunger,  he  eats  the  foods  prepared 
in  the  kitchen  or  restaurant.  These  are  only  a  few  of  all 
the  methods  of  control  that  we  accept  without  necessarily 
understanding  them. 

Moreover,  they  are  efficient  in  giving  control,  not  always 
perfect  control,  but  they  give  reasonable  satisfaction.  Ready- 
made  shoes  keep  the  feet  warm  and  dry,  electric  lights 
illuminate  the  house,  the  doctor's  medicine  helps  the  patient, 
the  electric  car  carries  us  to  our  destination,  the  prepared 
paint  beautifies  and  preserves  the  house,  and  the  cook's  food 
appeases  hunger. 

"Telling"  is  also  in  some  cases  satisfactory.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  we  can  use  a  method  of  control  in  securing 
what  we  desire  even  when  the  method  is  ready-made.  The 
forms  of  letters  which  are  prescribed  by  convention  will 


268  -  METHQDS  OF  TEACHING 

convey  our  meanings  better,  perhaps,  than  any  we  could 
invent.  The  same  is  true  of  orthographic  forms.  Receipts 
in  domestic  science  are  usually  more  efficient  than  those 
made  by  pupils  by  experiment.  The  facts  of  history  cannot 
be  gained  except  upon  authority. 

Moreover,  if  we  did  not  use  ready-made  methods  at  all 
w£  would  be  as  helpless  as  the  first  man,  more  so,  in  fact, 
for  he  had  his  ready-made  instincts  and  reflexes  suited  to 
his  condition  to  fall  back  upon.  So  "telling"  in  its  broader 
aspect  keeps  the  children  from  being  incompetent.  Life 
is  so  short  that  if  they  do  not  accept  these  inheritances 
they  will  be  able  to  make  little  advance,  will,  indeed,  fall 
far  behind  the  generation  which  bore  them.  The  wild  boys, 
who  have  been  discovered,  are  object  lessons  in  lack  of 
control  because  of  dependence  upon  their  own  efforts. 

SECTION   2.     DEVELOPING   SUBJECT-MATTER 
In  a  recitation  where  there  are  three  factors — pupils,  text- 
book, and  teacher — the  emphasis  may  be  placed  upon  any 
.  one  of  the  three. 

J  Text-book  Method. — If  the  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
text-book  while  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  follow  it  we 
have  the  text-book  method  of  teaching.  This  is  an  old 
method  of  teaching,  used  until  a  few  years  ago  almost 
entirely  in  the  schools  below  the  university.  The  use  of 
this  method  implies  that  the  lessons  shall  be  assigned  in 
the  text,  and  usually  it  is  recited  as  the  text  states  it.  In 
more  recent  times  it  is  still  used  extensively,  and  in  actual 
operation  consists  in  the  teacher  making  an  assignment  for 
home  study  in  advance  of  today's  lesson  and  in  having  the 
pupils  recite  upon  it  tomorrow. 

An  instance  comes  to  mind  in  English  history.  The 
teacher  had  assigned  ten  pages  in  advance  the  night  before 


FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  269 

I  visited  the  class.  In  the  recitation  which  I  observed  all 
the  pupils  that  could  be  accommodated  at  the  board  were 
arranged  in  order.  There  were  six  topics  assigned  the  night 
before,  so  the  pupils  number  from  i  to  6,  and  then  the 
seventh  called  himself  i,  the  eighth,  2,  in  the  ordinary  way. 
All  the  is  were  asked  to  write  on  one  topic,  all  tne  2s 
upon  another.  After  they  had  written  they  took  their  seats, 
and  the  teacher  and  the  class  went  over  each  topic  and 
picked  out  errors.  This  occupied  the  whole  period.  At 
the 'close  of  the  period  the  next  six  or  seven  pages  were 
assigned  for  next  day. 

The  teacher  considered  his  whole  business  to  consist  in 
seeing  if  the  pupils  remembered  the  facts  in  the  lesson.  No 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  anything  the  pupils  did  or  wanted. 
They  were  looked  upon  as  memory  machines.  Here  we 
have  chief  emphasis  upon  the  text-book.  But  pupils  and 
teachers  are  factors  in  the  recitation,  though  not  considered 
to  be  so  important  as  the  text. 

Lecture  Method. — If  the  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
teacher,  and  the  text  and  pupils  are  minimized,  we  have 
what  is  called  the  lecture  method.  This  method  is  commoner 
in  colleges  than  in  other  schools,  though  not  so  common  as 
it  was  a  few  years  ago.  Pulpit  sermons  are  also  examples 
of  the  lecture  method. 

The  chief  difficulties  with  the  lecture  methods  are  these: 
The  teacher  does  not  know  the  problems  of  the  pupils,  and 
so  cannot  give  them  subject-matter  in  such  a  form  as  to 
solve  their  problems.  Most  of  what  the  lecturer  gives  is 
not  understood  by  the  pupils,  nor  is  any  need  for  it  felt. 

There  are,  however,  many  cases  in  which  a  few  minutes 
of  connected  discourse  can  be  given  with  advantage  by  the 
teacher.  When  a  topic  has  reached  the  point  for  a  sum- 
mary, when  discussion  has  proceeded  far  enough,  the  teaaher 


270  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

sometimes  can  sum  up  to  advantage.  This  gives  a  logical 
arrangement  as  shown  in  Chapter  XII.  Elaboration  by 
material  which  the  pupil  cannot  secure  for  himself  can  be 
given  in  lecture  form.  But  where  lecturing  is  the  only  form 
of  instruction,  nobody  but  the  teacher  is  working  very 
much.  And  he  often  adopts  the  lecture  form  because  it  is 
easier  for  him  than  developing  or  using  a  text. 

Here,  again,  the  pupil  is  minimized.  His  business  is  to 
take  in  the  important  subject-matter,  the  lecture, 
i  Developing  Method. — If  the  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
the  pupil,  and  the  text-book  and  teacher  are  viewed  as  instru- 
ments, in  the  proper  functioning  of  his  activity  we  have 
the  developing  method.  In  terms  of  control,  the  developing 
method  may  be  described  as  a  method  by  which  the  pupil 
works  out  his  own  methods  and  control  with  such  assist- 
ance from  teacher  and  text  as  is  economical  of  time  and 
effort.  In  terms  of  judgment,  Bagley  says  this  method 
places  the  pupil  under  conditions  that  will  impel  him  to 
form  judgments  for  himself.1  The  developing  method 
leads  the  pupils  to  reason,  the  "telling"  method  to  remember. 

In  terms  of  activity,  McMurry  says  with  this  method  "the 
minds  of  the  pupils  are  active  in  producing  thought,"  they 
ask  questions,  and  in  expressing  thought  use  their  own 
words  rather  than  those  of  the  book  or  the  teacher. 

Standard. — The  test  of  a  good  development  lesson  is  a 
maximum  of  intelligent  effort  with  a  minimum  of  assist- 
ance from  text  and  teacher  such  as  to  produce  the  highest 
degree  of  efficiency.  There  are  two  extremes.  On  the  one 
hand,  there  may  be  no  assistance,  only  unaided  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils.  This  is  not  efficient;  it  is  wasteful. 
The  pupils  make  too  many  costly  errors.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  may  be  so  much  assistance  that  the  pupils  do  nothing. 
1  Educative  Process,  p.  256. 


FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  271 

This  is  equally  wasteful  and  inefficient.  The  developing 
method  has  the  highest  quality  when  just  enough  assistance 
is  given  pupils  to  enable  them  to  do  their  work  with  the 
highest  rate  and  degree  of  efficiency.  Where  this  point  of 
maximum  efficiency  lies  has  to  be  decided  in  each  individual 
case. 

Developing  Solutions. — The  developing  method  seeks 
to  have  the  pupils  do  certain  things  as  much  for  themselves 
as  efficient  use  of  time  and  effort  will  permit.  It  aims  to 
have  the  pupil  find  his  own  problems  for  himself,  to  gather 
as  much  data  as  he  can  for  himself — above  all,  to  make  his 
own  hypothesis,  and  also  to  verify  for  himself.  The  whole 
process  is  thrown  over  on  him.  The  text  offers  hints  and 
suggestions  for  all  of  these,  and  the  teacher  is  safeguarded 
against  fruitless  blundering. 

From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  developing  method  cannot 
be  worked  out  in  any  certain  way  before  the  teacher  goes 
to  the  class.  For  the  trend  of  the  teacher's  directions  and 
suggestions  will  be  determined  by  what  line  the  pupils  take 
and  by  the  kind  of  assistance  they  need. 

Yet,  at  the  same  time,  a  teacher,  like  a  general,  should 
have  a  tentative  plan  of  campaign  worked  out  before  enter- 
ing upon  the  lesson;  but  it  must  be  a  plan  subject  to 
revision  at  a  moment's  notice. 

Advantages  of  the  Developing  Plan. — In  the  first  place, 
it  assists  the  memory  in  retaining  the  method.  This  is  true 
because  there  is  a  good  deal  of  repetition,  because  it  makes 
associations  at  every  point  of  progress,  and  because  atten- 
tion is  keen  by  virtue  of  the  vigorous  working  of  the  mind. 

In  the  second  place,  it  enables  the  student  to  reconstruct 
the  method  when  memory  fails  to  recall  it.  If  he  begins 
with  his  old  methods,  by  reorganizing  them  he  may  be  able 
to  reason  the  organization  out  again.  To  be  sure,  he  may 


272  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

forget  these  also,  but  if  he  has  once  worked  them  out  he 
is  more  advantageously  situated  for  reconstructing  the 
method  than  if  he  had  merely  accepted  the  method  and 
had  not  constructed  it. 

In  the  third  place,  he  has  a  better  hold  upon  it  when  he 
uses  it.  He  understands  it  better,  and  understands  better 
the  uses  to  which  it  may  be  put.  The  motorman  who  under- 
stands the  mechanics  of  his  car  is  better  able  to  control  it 
than  he  would  be  if  he  had  been  taught  only  the  way  to 
turn  the  lever.  The  scientist  who  has  worked  the  theory  of 
evolution  through  for  himself  will  be  better  able  to  apply 
it  to  problems  than  will  the -one  who  has  accepted  the  theory 
on  authority.  For,  after  all,  problems  of  the  same  type  are 
not  all  .alike.  They  differ,  at  least  a  little,  and  when  they 
differ  the  method  has  to  be  modified.  If  the  student  has 
constructed  it,  he  then  can  see  better  how  it  may  be  changed, 
and  by  being  changed  become  more  effective.  He  under- 
stands it. 

In  the  fourth  place  (in  amplification  of  the  last  mentioned 
advantage),  when  the  method  is  remembered  but  fails  to 
work,  he  can  modify  it-  to  apply  to  the  special  conditions. 
And  herein  lies  the  weakness  of  the  ready-made  method. 
If  it  is  accepted  ready-made  and  breaks  down,  the  tfser  is 
helpless.  But  if  he  understands  its  construction  he  can 
make  it  work  again.  For  instance,  when  a  coat  does  not 
fit,  the  customer  may  be  helpless,  but  the  maker  can  remedy 
the  trouble.  If  the  electric  lights  go  out,  the  consumer  is 
helpless,  but  the  electrician  can  set  them  going  again.  If 
the  medicine  does  not  restore  health,  the  patient  can  do 
nothing,  but  the  doctor  can  re-examine  the  patient  and 
compound  other  medicines  that  will  be  more  likely  to  work. 
When  the  electric  car  stops,  the  passengers  sit  and  wait, 


FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  273 

but  the  mechanic  sets  it  going  again.  When  the  food  does 
not  satisfy,  the  cook  is  the  one  who  can  change  the  method 
of  preparation.  In  all  these  cases,  the  one  who  understands 
the  method  of  construction  is  best  able  to  set  things  going 
when  some  part  fails  to  work.  And  this  ability  gives  one 
tremendous  advantage  in  practical  life. 

In  the  fifth  place,  the  habit  of  thinking  things  through,  of 
trying  and  experimenting,  is  a  good  one  to  form.  Nor  is 
this  to  be  discounted  because  of  arguments  against  formal 
discipline.  (For  we  have  identity  of  procedure  and  of  sub- 
stance and  ideals  that  do  not  need  to  be  carried  over.)  If 
the  developing  plan  is  carried  on  in  every  subject,  then,  in 
so  far  as  the  subjects  are  germane  to  life,  there  will  be  with 
life  the  closest  identity  of  both  procedure  and  substance. 
And,  if  the  ideal  of  understanding  is  realized  in  every  sub- 
ject there  will  be  no  necessity  for  carrying  it  over  to 
other  subjects. 

Limitations  of  the  Developing  Method. — McMurry1 
gives  three  limitations.  He  says  that  not  everything  can 
be  developed ;  second,  that  it  is  an  extremely  difficult  method 
to  follow ;  and,  third,  that  the  intellectual  treasures  of  the 
past  lie  locked  up  in  books. 

Not  everything  can  be  developed,  because,  in  the  first 
place,  many  methods  that  the  children  can  use  ready-made 
are  too  difficult  for  them  to  construct.  We  have  to  tell 
them  many  things  for  which  we  cannot  explain  the  reason. 
Excellent  foods  may  be  cooked  without  a  knowledge  of  the 
chemistry  of  the  foods  to  show  why  the  ingredients  act  as 
they  do.  Historical  events  are  sometimes  told  to  children 
without  the  reasons  for  the  events  being  made  evident.  In 
the  second  place,  not  everything  that  might  be  developed 

1Op.  cit.,  pp.  142-143. 


274  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ought  to  be  developed.  There  is  not  time  to  do  so.  And 
even  though  it  be  true,  as  McMurry  says,  that  nine-tenths 
of  what  is  taken  up  in  school  is  forgotten,  it  does  not  follow 
that  only  one-tenth  of  the  school  work  should  be  covered, 
and  that  by  the  developing  method.  For  undoubtedly  some 
of  the  methods  of  control  that  are  most  useful  are  such 
that  they  cannot  be  developed. 

That  the  developing  method  is  extremely  difficult  to  follow 
is  undoubtedly  true.  If  the  test  of  efficiency  were  merely 
the  asking  of  questions  it  would  be  an  easy  matter,  but 
when  the  standard  is  that  of  giving  the  children  the  privi- 
lege of  doing  the  experimenting,  it  is  different.  For  ques- 
tions may  be  merely  the  dress  in  which  "telling"  masquer- 
ades. Then,  again,  too  many  questions  make  the  progress 
too  easy  and  lead  to  puerile  thinking.  Efficient  use  of  the 
method  does  not  depend  upon  questions,  but  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  questions ;  upon  whether  or  not  they  stimulate 
thought. 

A  fourth  limitation  which  McMurry  mentions  in  another 
connection,  is  that  it  is  open  to  the  danger  of  wandering. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  teacher  has  temporarily  to 
forsake  the  exact  order  of  logical  organization,  in  order  to 
follow  the  lead  of  the  children.  But  if  the  problem  is  kept 
in  mind,  if  the  solution  to  be  arrived  at  is  clearly  under- 
stood by  the  teacher,  this  danger  will  be  obviated,  in  part 
at  least.  Then,  too,  the  teacher  may  think  out  how  he  will 
develop  the  lesson,  and  may  determine  the  "pivotal"  ques- 
tions, to  use  McMurry's  phrase.  To  be  sure,  he  may  not 
follow  this  sequence,  because  the  children  may  not  give  the 
answers  he  desires.  But  with  increasing  skill  in  teaching 
he  will  be  able  to  foresee  more  accurately ;  and,  at  the  worst, 
even  if  he  has  to  discard  his  development  plan,  to  have 


FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  275 

thought  out  some  plan  will  be  of  assistance  in  making  a 
new  one  when  required. 

Developing  vs.  "Telling." — What  shall  be  developed, 
and  what  shall  be  given  ready-made?  _We  have  no  scien- 
tific data  upon  which  to  base  a  method  of  procedure.  Any 
statement  made  must  rest  upon  an  empirical  basis.  It  seems 
reasonable  to  say  that  those  methods  of  control  which  will 
be  the  most  useful  and  whose  construction  is  within  the 
power  of  the  children,  should  be  developed.  All  facts  of 
temporary  importance  may  be  "told,"  unless  very  easy  and 
capable  of  rapid  development.  All  principles,  no  matter 
though  they  be  important,  if  at  the  same  time  their  basis 
is  beyond  the  children's  power,  may  be  given  ready-made, 
or  delayed  till  they  can  be  worked  out.  But  all  the  methods 
(principles  or  facts)  which  should  be  in  the  possession  of 
the  pupils,  because  of  frequent  use  or  of  fundamental  impor- 
tance, and  which  the  pupils  can  construct  for  themselves, 
may,  as  just  said  above,  be  developed. 

To  take  a  simple  illustration  from  geography:  The  geo- 
graphical conditions  that  make  a  city  great  should  be. 
developed,  but  the  size  of  the  city  must  be  told.  The  first 
is  within  the  power  of  children,  who  are  usually  taught  the 
facts;  the  second  is  not  particularly  important,  and,  of 
course,  could  not  be  developed,  since  it  would  necessitate  a 
visit  to  the  city  and  the  counting  of  its  inhabitants.  And, 
again,  the  rules  for  division  by  fractions  and  for  the  extract- 
ing of  the  square  root  should  not  be  developed  in  the  eighth 
grade,  the  former  because  too  difficult,  though  important, 
the  latter  because  both  too  difficult  and  unimportant. 

To  avoid  confusion,  it  may  be  said  in  concluding  that 
both  developing  and  "telling"  usually  occur  in  the  same 
lesson.  Some  data  are  given  by  the  teacher,  some  are 


276  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

cpllected  by  the  pupils,  some  suggestions  are  made  by  the 
teacher  and  others  by  the  pupils. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

-  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  256-264. 
McMurry,  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  pp.  118-146. 

EXERCISES 

»  „   " 

1.  Name  ten  things  that  you  have  found  out  for  your- 
self during  the  last  ten  days. 

2.  Does  it  ever  happen  that  you  are  better  satisfied  to 
have  some  person  tell  you  something  outright  than  to  merely 
give  you  hints  and  hold  back  a  full  explanation  ?    Illustrate. 

3.  Developing   is   used   very   little   outside   of   school. 
People  generally  give  you  information  outright  when  you 
ask  for  it.    Is  that  a  weakness  ? 

4.  Is  a  sequence  of  important  facts  a  good  sign  of  the 
use  of  the  developing  type  ?    Why  ? 

5.  How  can  you  have  any  developing  of  a  topic  if  you 
,  use  a  text-book  which  explains  the  topic  ? 

6.  Why  is  it  that  a  teacher  never  gets  to  know  his 
pupils'  needs  when  he  lectures  all  the  time? 

7.  Is  it  necessary  or  advisable  in  developing  a  solution 
to  always  grade  the  questions  starting  from  easy  ones  and 
going  to  difficult  ? 

8.  How  would  you  evaluate  this  teacher's  statement? — 
I  have  never  asked  a  question  which  my  class  could  not 
answer. 

9.  Give  two  outstanding  examples  of  cases  in  which  you 
remembered  a  thing  much  better  when  you  worked  it  out 
than  when  told  you ;  two  in  which  you  understood  the 
subject  better  under  the  same  conditions. 


FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  277 

10.  If  you  are  observing  classes,  note  cases  in  which  the 
development  is  poor,  and  state  the  reason. 

11.  Note  in  this  observation  cases  in  which  a  point  should 
have  been  developed  instead  of  being  told,  and  one  of  the 
opposite  sort  in  which  an  attempt  at  development  might 
better  have  been  omitted  and  the  facts  told. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

TEXT-BOOKS 

SECTION  i.    INTRODUCTORY 

In  the  last  chapter  the  text-book  method  was  described 
briefly.  This  chapter  will  deal  with  the  text-book  more 
extensively  and  will  endeavor  to  show  that  the  text-book 
when  used  in  a  certain  way  is  a  legitimate  part  of  the 
developing  method.  This  is  in  opposition  to  McMurry, 
who  says,1  "Neither  does  she  (in  the  developing  method) 
allow  the  facts  that  are  to  be  learned  to  be  first  presented 
through  a  text-book;  she  prefers  to  develop  facts  and  con- 
clusions by  conversation  with  the  pupils." 

We  shall  endeavor  to  show  that  in  some  cases  the  text- 
book does  not  give  an  efficient  amount  of  assistance,  and 
in  other  cases  does.  In  this  latter  case  it  belongs  to  the 
highest  type  of  developmental  work. 

What  Is  a  Text-book? — Briefly,  a  text-book  is  simply 
a  vehicle  for  the  transmission  of  solutions  of  problems.  This 
is  merely  another  case  of  the  frequently  repeated  principle 
of  the  earlier  chapters  on  subject-matter. 

Form. — Text-books  fail  to  do  good  service  frequently 
because  they  are  too  difficult,  as  any  reader  can  easily  verify 
for  himself.  In  the  second  place,  as  Bagley  points  out, 
they  appeal  only  to  the  eye;  while  with  many  pupils  the 
ear  is  the  better  means  of  approach  for  ideas. 

1  Method  of  Recitation,  pp.  121-122. 

278 


TEXT  BOOKS  279 

Our  discussion,  however,  will  deal  chiefly  with  the  content 
of  the  texts. 

SECTION  2.    PROBLEMS 

As  just  said,  a  text-book  is  a  compilation  of  solutions  of 
problems.  Hence,  every  paragraph,  section  and  chapter 
has  a  problem  of  its  own.  The  problem  of  this  chapter  I 
am  now  writing  is,  What  are  the  best  methods  of  using  text- 
books wisely  ?  The  problem  of  this  section  is,  How  do  texts 
show  us  the  problems  they  try  to  solve?  The  problem  of 
this  paragraph  is,  What  is  the  relation  of  a  chapter,  para- 
graph, or  section  to  problems  ? 

We  do  not  usually  ask,  What  is  the  problem  in  this 
paragraph?  We  rather  say,  What  is  the  point  of  the  para- 
graph ?  What  is  the  topic  discussed  ?  or,  What  is  the  theme  ? 
But  we  imply  the  problem  because  the  point,  topic,  or  theme 
is  the  solution  of  some  problem.  If  the  theme  is  text-books, 
then  the  problem  is,  What  is  the  best  method  of  handling 
text-books?  If  the  point  made  is  that  texts  are  aids  to 
keen  thinking,  the  problem  is,  What  are  texts? 

Methods  of  Showing  Problems. — Sometimes  the  prob- 
blem  is  set  forth  by  a  question.  On  page  93,  Chapter  VI, 
the  paragraph  begins,  "And  now,  what  becomes  of  this 
breath  which  passes  our  lips?"  'Here  the  problem  of  the 
paragraph  is  set  forth  clearly. 

Again,  the  theme  may  be  set  out  in  black  face,  as  is  the 
case  in  this  text.  A  few  lines  above  we  find  the  words, 
"Methods  of  Showing  Problems."  This  is  the  topic;  the 
problem  is,  What  are  the  methods  of  showing  problems? 
This  merely  requires  a  little  juggling  to  bring  out  the 
problem  in  problem  form. 

Occasionally  marginal  insertions  are  made,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  Chapter  XI  of  Dewey's  How  We  Think,  insertions 
are  made  down  the  margins  of  pages,  the  dash  here  indi- 


28o  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

eating  the  end  of  each  insertion:  "Empirical  thinking  de- 
pends upon  past  habits — it  is  fairly  adequate  in  some  mat- 
ters— hut  is  very  apt  to  lead  to  false  beliefs — and  does  not 
enable  us  to  cope  with  the  novel — and  leads  to  laziness  and 
presumption — and  to  dogmatism."  Here  we  have  the  solu- 
tion syllabicated.  The  student,  glancing  at  the  marginal 
readings,  knows  what  to  look  for  in  reading  the  body  of 
the  text. 

Topic  sentences  are  usually  put  at  the  beginning  of  para- 
graphs, and  show  what  solution  or  problem  is  presented. 
"A  man  of  polite  imagination  is  let  into  a  great  many  pleas- 
ures that  the  vulgar  are  not  capable  of  receiving.  He  can 
converse  with  a  picture,  and  find  an  agreeable  companion  in 
a  statue.  He  meets  with  a  secret  refreshment  in  a  descrip- 
tion, and  often  feels  a  greater  satisfaction  in  the  prospect 
of  fields  and  meadows  than  another  does  in  the  possession 
of  them.  It  gives  him  a  kind  of  property  in  everything  he 
sees,  and  makes  the  most  rude,  uncultivated  parts  of  nature 
administer  to  his  pleasures.  So  that  he  looks  on  the  world 
in  another  light,  and  discovers  in  it  a  multitude  of  charms 
that  conceal  themselves  from  the  generality  of  mankind." — 
Addison. 

Titles  in  a  general  way  often  throw  light  on  the  specific 
problem  to  be  discussed.  Methods  of  Teaching  is  fairly 
exact.  So  also  is  Practical  Rhetoric.  Chapter  headings 
indicate  the  subject  and  imply  the  problem.  Sometimes 
they  do  not,  as  in  Hamlet,  Kubla  Kahn,  Macbeth.  Hamlet's 
problem  is  the  problem  of  indecision,  and  Macbeth's,  of 
unfettered  ambition, — problems  not  shown  in  the  title. 

Sometimes  the  problem  cannot  be  put  into  the  phrasing 
of  a  single  sentence.  Genung  says,1  "When  the  paragraph 
1  Practical  Rhetoric,  p.  195. 


TEXT  BOOKS  281 

is  descriptive  or  narrative,  or  when  it  is  merely  an  accumu- 
lation of  details  of  any  kind,  the  subject  cannot  be  so  easily 
reduced  to  a  proposition,  but  must  be  gathered  from  the 
general  bearing  of  the  whole." 

Sometimes  the  text  shows  how  the  problem  arises  ;  usually 
it  takes  the  value  of  the  problem  for  granted.  Note,  for 
instance,  the  problems  this  text  discusses.  Run  through  the 
section  headings  and  the  introductory  paragraphs  of  each 
section  and  see  that  only  occasionally  is  it  shown  how  the 
problems  discussed  arise.  Texts  usually  assume  that  the 
problem  discussed  is  potential  and  will  become  active  as 
soon  as  it  is  mentioned. 

Weakness  of  Text. — In  spite  of  all  this  effort  to  make 
the  problems  clear,  many  texts  are  not  coherently  written 
and  are  difficult  to  analyze  into  problems.  Then,  again,  the 
assumption  that  interest  in  the  problem  will  spring  out  at 
the  beck  of  the  reader  is  not  safe.  Hence,  material  may 
be  read  presenting  solutions  of  problems  which  the  pupil 
does  not  have  and  he  may  read  because  of  certain  generic 
motives,  as  the  performance  of  a  required  task. 

To  use  the  text  intelligently,  it  is  therefore  necessary  that 
the  problem  of  the  unit  be  a  problem  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupil.  In  other  words,  pupils  should  usually  not  approach 
a  text  without  the  problem  having  been  made  active  by  the 
teacher,  or  otherwise.  The  order  of  the  text  can  seldom  be 
followed  without  digression. 

For  instance,  in  teaching  the  first  edition  of  this  text  the 
writer  has  taken  up  the  chapters  in  this  order :  Control  of 
Values,  XII;  Forms  of  Instruction,  XIII;  Methods  of 
Development,  XIV;  Motive,  IX;  Motive,  VIII;  etc.  On 
other  occasions,  with  other  classes,  the  order  has  been 
changed  again.  In  no  case  has  the  identical  order  been 


282  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

maintained  twice.  And  if  a  teacher  using  his  own  text 
feels  under  necessity  of  changing  the  order  of  the  problems 
from  class  to  class  and  from  year  to  year,  in  order  to  get 
into  closest  touch  with  the  students'  problems  as  they  unfold 
in  serial  form,  it  is  evident  that  one  using  a  text  which  he 
did  not  write  would  have  to  vary  the  order  still  further. 
Yet  there  are  teachers  who  will  not  vary,  the  order  of  selec- 
tions even  in  a  reader. 

SECTION  3.    DATA 

Weakness  of  Text. — As  a  means  of  developing  subject- 
matter  and  allowing  the  student  to  participate  in  the  full 
solution  of  a  problem,  the  text  has  a  serious  handicap,  with 
regard  to  data,  in  that  the  data  collected  are  not  all  shown. 
Only  those  used  are  mentioned. 

The  following  interesting  case  given  by  a  student  illus- 
trates this : 

"A  few  months  ago  I  was  preparing  an  article  for  the 
Missouri  School  Journal  on  the  subject  of  ethics  in  high 
school.  The  main  problem  was,  'How  can  practical  ethical 
instruction  be  given  to  high  school  students  ?'  and  that  was 
divided  into  four  sub-problems: 

1.  Showing  the  importance  attached  by  the  public  to 

ethical  questions. 

2.  The  immediate  need  of  practical  ethical  instruction 

for  young  people  of  high  school  age. 

3.  The  various  objections  to  be  raised  to  doing  this. 

4.  Best  methods  of  giving  such  instruction. 

I  accumulated  a  great  deal  of  data,  especially  data  that  had 
to  do  with  the  first  point,  of  the  importance  of  ethical  ques- 
tions. The  first  outline  will  show  the  data  that  were  at 
hand  and  the  second  will  show  the  outline  of  the  article  as 
finally  written : 


TEXT  BOOKS  283 

I.     How   Can   Practical   Ethical   Instruction   Be   Given   to 
High  School  Students? 

a.     Proofs  of  the  importance  attached  by  the  public  to 
questions  of  ethics. 

1.  Change  at  the  Missouri  penitentiary  from  the  old 
striped  convicts'  suits. 

2.  Adoption  of  a  parole  system  for  first  offenders. 

3.  Industrial  farm  near  Kansas  City,  for  boy  law- 
breakers. 

4.  The  rule  adopted  by  the  Bankers'  Association  of 
Kansas  in  regard  to  borrowing  money  to  purchase 
motor  cars. 

5.  Increasing  interest  in  arbitration. 

6.  The  great  conservation  projects. 

7.  Pure  Food  Law. 

8.  Railroad  Rate  Regulation. 

9.  Compulsory  Education  Laws. 

10.  Prosecutions  for  graft. 

11.  The  "Insurgent"  movement  in  politics. 

12.  The  Scout  movement. 

13.  The  Liquor  Agitation. 

14.  Bank  Guaranty  Laws. 

15.  The  "Big  Brother"  movement  at  Christmas  time. 

1 6.  Boys'  Camps. 

17.  Free  Legal  Aid  Bureau. 

18.  Free  Sunday  Concerts. 

19.  Playgrounds. 

20.  Milk  Inspection  in  Cities. 

21.  Free  Ice  in  Tenement  Districts. 

22.  Very  general  interest  in  the  principle  of  "the 
square  deal." 

II.    The  Skeleton  outline  for  the  article  as  finally  written 


284  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

is  as  follows :    How  Can  Practical  Ethical  Instruction 
Be  Given  to  High  School  Students? 
a.     Importance  of  Ethical   Questions  as   shown  by  the 
public  attention  to  them. 

1.  Penitentiary  Suits. 

2.  Parole  System  and  Industrial  Prison  Farm. 

3.  Laws  in  regard  to  Pure  Food,  Railroad  Rates, 
and  Compulsory  Education. 

4.  Graft  prosecutions. 

5.  "Big  Brother"  movement  and  similar  projects. 

If  a  student  is  to  develop  his  solution  and  uses  the  text, 
he  is,  of  course,  handicapped,  because  he  sees  only  the  few 
points  selected.  He  does  not  have  exercise  in  selecting  and 
rejecting  the  data. 

Reference  Work. — However,  this  can  be  obviated  in 
great  part  by  the  use  of  more  than  one  text  and  by  the 
setting  of  problems  that  will  require  the  gathering  of  data 
from  all  the  sources. 

A  student  makes  the  following  statement  showing  how 
this  can  be  carried  out  in  history.  In  this  statement  a  brief 
resume  of  what  is  found  in  each  reference  is  given  to  aid 
the  reader. 

The  lesson  is  upon  the  origin  and  results  of  Jackson's 
Spoils  System. 

The  references  are  as  follows: 

Ashley's  American  History,  p.  301,  one  page.  An  expla- 
nation of  the  term  "Spoils  System"  is  given.  Jackson's 
attitude  toward  opposing  parties  is  given ;  that  is,  his  loyalty 
to  friends  and  his  opposition  to  enemies.  He  was  besieged 
by  a  number  of  office  seekers  who  gave  him  no  rest.  Fif- 
teen hundred  office  holders  were  removed  within  less  than 
a  year.  No  reason  was  given.  No  precedent  had  he  for  it. 
The  "kitchen  cabinet"  is  next  described. 


TEXT  BOOKS  285 

Channing,  p.  390,  one  page.  Earlier  there  was  little 
change  in  national  party  machinery  and  little  change  in 
state  party  machinery,  save  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York. 
Van  Buren  and  Marcy  were  important  in  the  state  changes 
that  had  been  made,  and  they  saw  nothing  wrong  in  the 
spoils  belonging  to  the  victor.  It  was  expected  that  Jackson 
would  reward  his  friends ;  this  he  did.  Within  nine  months 
over  one  thousand  office  holders  had  been  removed.  Jackson 
wanted  good  men,  but  on  account  of  the  number  a  poor 
inspection  necessarily  was  made.  He  broke  away  from  all 
precedents,  and  advised  freely  with  his  kitchen  cabinet. 

Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  p.  30,  four  pages.  Meeting 
cf  the  Twenty-first  Congress  took  place  nine  months  after 
Jackson's  inauguration,  and  this  Congress  disclosed  many 
evidences  of  what  the  new  administration  was  to  be.  Deli- 
cate questions  were  to  be  handled.  A  radical  reconstruction 
of  Civil  Service  had  taken  place,  and  it  had  startled  and 
repelled  some  of  the  Jackson  men.  More  than  one  thousand 
removals  before  Congress  met  had  taken  place,  against 
seventy-three  removals  for  all  previous  administrations. 
Adams  said  that  very  few  reputable  appointments  were 
made.  Webster  gave  a  quotation  not  complimentary  to  the 
administration.  The  number  of  federal  officers  was 
increasing  yearly,  and  the  crisis  in  public  service  had  now 
come,  and  in  the  removals  Van  Buren  said,  "We  give  no 
reason."  The  Senate  rejected  some  of  the  worst  names, 
and  looked  for  means  to  defeat  unprecedented  schemes,  but 
failed.  The  President's  message  gave  some  explanations 
for  the  removals,  but  they  were  very  vague.  His  explana- 
tions were  as  follows :  He  spoke  of  the  corrupting  influence 
of  long  terms  of  office.  No  one  ever  acquired  the  right  to 
office  by  holding  it.  Yet  no  proof  was  given  that  these  long 
termed  officers  had  been  corrupt. 


286  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Jackson,  however,  was  probably  not  responsible  for  the 
unworthy  men,  yet  a  great  many  mistakes  were  made.  This 
responsibility  rested  on  the  officers  of  Jackson.  Jackson 
was  a  soldier,  not  a  politician.  He  was  controlled  largely 
by  such  men  as  Van  Buren  and  Marcy;  as  shown  by  the 
Albany  Regency,  he  was  ruled  by  politicians. 

McLaughlin,  p.  324,  one  page.  Before  this  time  ineffi- 
ciency or  dishonesty  was  the  cause  of  the  removal  of 
office  holders.  Adams  removed  only  two  men  in  his  whole 
term.  He  did  not  reward  his  friends  by  public  office. 
Jackson  thought  that  the  office  holders  under  Adams  were 
an  incompetent  and  corrupt  lot.  He  thought  those  who 
supported  him  were  his  friends  and  those  who  opposed  him 
his  enemies.  The  whole  of  the  administration  of  Adams 
was  given  no  consideration  by  Jackson.  With  this  feeling 
and  the  aid  of  influential  men  he  began  the  wholesale  re- 
moval of  office  holders  and  introduced  his  Spoils  System. 
An  excellent  definition  of  the  Spoils  System  was  given  in 
this  text.  He  reorganized  his  cabinet,  and  many  men  were 
not  of  wide  experience. 

Johnson's  High  School  History  of  the  U.  S.,  by  Mac- 
Donald,  p.  285.  Postmasters,  clerks,  marshals,  etc.,  not 
supposed  to  take  part  in  political  contests.  They  did  their 
work  and  were  paid  for  it.  Naturally,  Jackson  began  by 
removing  them,  regardless  of  faithfulness.  After  him, 
other  administrations  followed.  This  continued  until  1887, 
when  the  Civil  Service  was  introduced.  Yet  the  Spoils 
System  had  very  bad  results. 


The  guiding  questions  with  reference  to  this  lesson  should 
be  given  as  follows: 

(i)  Tell  of  the  previous  conditions  in  regard  to  office 
holding.  (See  Ashley,  page  301;  Wilson,  page  30  and 


TEXT  BOOKS  287 

following;    McLaughlin,  page  324;    and  Johnson's  High 
School  History  of  the  U.  S.,  by  MacDonald,  page  285.) 

(2)  What  conditions  arose  that  caused  a  change?     (See 
Wilson,  page  30  and  following;    McLaughlin,  page  324; 
Channing,  page  390.) 

(3)  Describe  these  changes.     (Wilson,  page  30;   Chan- 
ning, page  390;  Ashley,  page  301 ;  McLaughlin,  page  324.) 

(4)  Give  results  of  the  new  system.     (Johnson's  High 
School  History  cf  the  U.  S.,  by  MacDonald,  page  285,  and 
Wilson,  page  30  and  following;   Channing,  page  390.) 

An  exercise  like  this  will  lead  to  the  collection  of  data  by 
the  pupils,  and  will,  in  addition,  give  them  a  wholesome 
skepticism  about  the  infallibility  of  a  text-book.  For,  as  in 
the  above  problem,  authors  not  only  differ  but  contradict 
each  other. 

Upon  this  point  Miss  Earhart  says,1  "The  student  is  not 
limited  to  the  author's  text,  however,  but  may  draw  upon 
his  own  experience  and  upon  his  imagination.  He  may 
read  books,  papers,  and  magazines,  and  may  talk  with 
people  who  are  informed  in  regard  to  the  subject  he  is 
studying.  He  may  perform  experiments  and  make  observa- 
tions. In  any  or  all  of  these  ways  he  may  supplement  the 
author's  text  and  add  largely  to  the  material  bearing  upon 
his  problem.  The  criterion  for  acceptance  here,  as  in  other 
study,  is  the  relevancy  of  the  facts  to  the  problem.  That 
which  is  irrelevant  should  be  rejected,  and  only  the  relevant 
accepted.  If,  for  example,  the  problem  is,  'How  the  mineral 
products  of  the  Western  States  have  influenced  the  develop- 
ment of  those  states,'  then  students  engaged  upon  such  a 
problem  may  neglect  all  the  statements  made  by  the  author 
which  do  not  bear  upon  it,  but  they  must  sift  out  and  accept 
that  which  contributes  to  its  solution. 
1  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  85-6. 


288  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

It  may  be  urged  by  some  that  this  gathering  of  data  wil! 
consume  more  time  than  the  class  has  at  its  disposal.  How- 
ever, rejecting  irrelevant  matter  saves  time;  and  the  exam- 
ining of  other  sources  than  the  book  can  be  divided  among 
the  members  of  the  class,  so  that  the  labor  is  divided.  The 
interest  arising  from  the  presence  of  a  problem  will  also 
quicken  the  efforts  of  the  pupils,  and  so  save  time." 

Sutherland  pricks  a  bubble  blown  in  the  old  days  of  the 
text-book  method.1  "The  idea  often  held  that  pupils  must 
never  look  into  their  books  while  in  class,  is  old-fashioned 
and  traditional.  Quite  often  the  recitation  period  may  very 
profitably  be  spent  with  books  open  and  pupils  intent  on 
answering  questions  from  maps,  interpreting  pictures,  veri- 
fying inferences,  or  getting  correct  meaning  from  difficult 
sentences.  Every  teacher  who  secures  good  results  must 
find  such  'study-recitations'  necessary.  Too  often  pupils  are 
put  to  tasks  without  preparation;  waste  of  time,  mental 
confusion,  and  discouragement  are  quite  sure  to  follow." 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  text  may  be  used  to  shield  a 
student  who  does  not  study.  It  "assumes  that  students  are 
willing  but  that  plenty  of  problems  arise  in  which  reference 

to  the  text  saves  time  and  fosters  exactness. 

t 

SECTION  4.     HYPOTHESES 

Weakness  of  Text. — In  a  text-book  the  author  usually 
gives  the  correct  hypothesis  and  the  pupil  thereby  loses  the 
exercise  and  efficiency  gained  by  participating  in  hypothesis- 
forming  and  testing.  A  few  examples  will  make  this  clear. 

In  a  geography  we  find  the  sentence,  "The  great  round 
earth  is  a  huge  ball,  or  sphere,  called  the  globe."  Needless 
to  say,  that  does  not  recount  the  endless  arguments  pro 
and  con,  nor  take  into  account  the  hypotheses  which  went 

1  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  p.  180. 


TEXT  BOOKS  289 

before  it  and  which  are  to-day  dying  a  stubborn  death  out 
in  the  open  country.  "The  body  is  made  of  cells."  This 
leaves  out  of  account  other  hypotheses  held  prior  to  the 
formulation  of  this  hypothesis.  "The  moon  is  a  satellite  of 
the  earth,"  "The  blood  circulates  through  the  arteries,  capil- 
laries and  veins  under  the  impulse  of  the  beating  of  the 
heart,"  are  all  simple  examples  that  come  easily  to  mind. 

SECTION  5.    VERIFICATION 

Text-books  frequently  make  statements  (give  solutions) 
without  attempting  to  show  readers  that  they  are  correct. 
Numerous  examples  of  this  can  be  given : 

(1)  "Objects  may  be  used  as  the  best  means  of  training 

children  to  talk  with  the  pencil." 

(2)  "The  written  word  to  the  little  child  has  no  element 

of  attraction." 

(3)  "The  foundation  of  spelling  should  be  learned  en- 

tirely by  writing ;  every  word  that  the  child  learns 
from  the  blackboard  should  be  carefully  copied  on 
paper." 

(4)  "Geography  is  the  very  best  means  of  developing 

the  powers  of  imagination." 

The  author,  so  far  as  the  reader  is  concerned,  assumes 
these  facts  to  be  true. 

Now,  if  these  facts  are  to  be  accepted  by  the  reader,  they 
must  first  be  verified. 

How  Are  Facts  Verified? — Facts  should  be  put  to  the 
test  to  see  if  they  hold  for  the  reader's  experience.  In  the 
statements  just  made  questions  like  this  will  arise: 

(i)  Is  it  true  that  objects  are  the  best  means  of  teaching 
drawing?  Couldn't  children  learn  to  draw  better, 
in  the  beginning,  at  any  rate,  by  drawing  fanciful 
pictures  and  by  illustrating  stories,  etc.? 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

(2)  Do  I  not  know  of  cases  where  children  were  greatly 

attracted  by  written  words? 

(3)  Does    this    exclude    visual    memory    and    auditory 

memory?    If  so,  is  the  statement  not  too  narrow? 

(4)  Are  literature,  fairy  stories,  and  pictures  not  just  as 

good  or  better  means,  etc.  ? 

In  many  cases  the  author  gives  his  own  verification  in 
the  forms  of  application.  The  reader  may  look  over  this 
text  for  casesv  in  which  illustrations  by  way  of  verification 
are  given,  and  also  for  instances  in  which  statements  are 
made  without  any  attempt  to  verify  for  the  reader. 

But  because  of  limitations  of  space,  authors  are  not  able 
to  give  a  wide  range  of  applications.  Nor  are  they  able 
always  to  give  applications  that  would  be  mo"st  useful  for 
each  individual  reader. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  in  every  case  that  the  reader 
make  his  own  illustrations  and  raise  his  own  objections. 
To  do  this  gives  pupils  much  wTorry,  frequently,  but  if  it  is 
not  done  the  facts  of  the  text  are  isolated  facts  and  nothing 
more.  Students  have  to  be  drilled  upon  giving  examples 
"not  found  in  the  text."  And  even  then  they  do  not  have  a 
wide  variety  in  their  examples.  This  explains  why  ques- 
tions have  been  put  in  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  The 
students  will,  by  being  asked  always  to  give  examples, 
develop  the  habit  of  application  and  verification. 

However,  as  Earhart  points  out,1  "It  is  not  intended  that 
pupils  shall  question  everything  they  read  or  hear.  Usually 
they  will  not  need  to  have  doubts  as  to  the  reliability  of 
the  statements  made.  But  the  attitude  of  ready  acceptance 
of  everything  needs  to  be  replaced  by  the  attitude  of  mind 
which  questions  that  which  seems  out  of  harmony  with 
previous  experience,  which  is  startling  in  its  nature,  which 

1  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  93-4. 


seems  to  lack  sufficient  evidence,  or  which  seems  too  general 
in  its  scope.  Such  instances,  and  possibly  others,  furnish 
occasion  for  thought  and  investigation  as  to  the  validity 
of  the  material  offered.  In  this  respect,  text-book  study 
does  not  differ  from  any  other  study  in  which  data  are 
presented  to  throw  light  upon  some  situation.  Judgment 
as  to  the  soundness  of  statements  is  usually  necessary, 
though  due  credence  should  be  given  to  the  results  of  the 
labors  of  experts  in  the  several  fields  of  knowledge." 

McMurry  says,1  "Whether  he  likes  it  or  not,  the  student 
cannot  escape  the  responsibility  of  determining  for  himself 
the  fairness  and  general  reliability  of  the  newspapers  and 
magazines  that  he  reads ;  he  must  expect  bias  in  historians, 
and  must  measure  the  extent  of  it  as  well  as  he  can  by 
studying  their  biographies  and  by  observing  their  care  in 
regard  to  data  and  logic ;  he  must  scrutinize  very-  critically 
the  ideas  of  the  world's  greatest  essayists  and  dramatists. 
If  a  philosopher  like  Rousseau  offers  brilliant  truths  on  one 
page  and  equally  brilliant  perversions  of  truth  on  the  next 
page,  the  student  must  ponder  often  and  long  in  order  to 
keep  his  bearings ;  and  if  footnotes  attempt  to  point  out 
some  of  these  absurdities,  he  must  decide  for  himself  whether 
Rousseau  or  the  commentator  shows  the  superior  wisdom. 
'Above  all,'  says  Koopman,  'he  (the  student)  must  make 
sure  how  far  he  can  trust  the  author.' 

"  'Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute,  nor  to  believe  and 
take  for  granted,  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse,  but  to 
weigh  and  consider,'  says  Bacon. 

"  'Every  book  we  read  may  be  made  a  round  in  the  ever- 
lengthening  ladder  by  which  we  climb  to  knowledge  and 
to  that  temperance  and  serenity  of  mind  which,  as  it  is  the 
ripest  fruit  of  wisdom,  is  also  the  sweetest.  But  this  can 

1  How  to  Study,  pp.  138-140. 


292  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

only  be  if  we  read  such  books  as  make  us  think,  and  read 
them  in  such  a  way  as  helps  them  to  do  so,  that  is,  by 
endeavoring  to  judge  them,  and  thus  to  make  them  an 
exercise  rather  than  a  relaxation  of  the  mind.  Desultory 
reading,  except  as  conscious  pastime,  debilitates  the  brain 
and  slackens  the  bow-string  of  Will.' — Lowell,  Books  and 
Libraries. 

"The  student,  therefore,  must  set  himself  up  as  judge  of 
whatever  ideas  appear  before  him.  They  are  up  for  trial 
on  their  soundness  and  worth ;  he  must  uncover  their  merits 
and  defects,  and  pass  judgment  on  their  general  value.  If 
he  is  hasty  and  careless,  he  suffers  the  penalty  of  bad  judg- 
ment; and  if  he  refrains  from  judging  at  all,  he  becomes 
one  who  'does  not  know  his  own  mind,'  a  weakling — 

'Who  reads 

Incessantly,  and  to  his  readings  brings  not 
A  spirit  and  judgment  equal  or  superior 
Uncertain  and  unsettled  still  remains, 
Deep  versed  in  books  and  shallow  in  himself.'  " 

Alertness  and  Docility. — Some  few  pupils  display  skep- 
ticism. The  vast  majority  are  docile  and  take  what  is 
given  them.  This  docility  is  due  in  part  to  temperament. 
Most  people  J,ake  ideas  without  examining  them  very  care- 
fully. It  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  pupils  read  so  much 
in  school  that  is  foreign  to  their  experience  and  cannot  very 
easily  be  verified,  that  they  get  into  the  habit  of  taking 
things  without  examination.  The  lack  of  training  in  mental 
alertness  is  responsible  for  the  remainder.  Teachers  are 
sadly  negligent  in  leading  children  to  be  alert.  Perhaps 
teachers  themselves  are  not  intellectually  alert,  because  they 
are  like  most  of  the  people  in  the  world,  and  because  they 
have  been  made  docile  in  their  progress  through  the  educa- 
tional mill. 


TEXT  BOOKS 


293 


Intensive  Study  vs.  Skimming.  —  The  old  text-book 
method  assumed  that  everything  in  the  text  was  to  be  learned 
thoroughly  and  in  some  cases  was  to  be  memorized  verbatim. 
But  when  we  use  the  text  in  developmental  work,  the  prob- 
lem of  the  pupil  becomes  the  important  factor,  and  thus 
not  everything  in  the  text  is  of  equal  value,  and  some  things 
are  of  no  value.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  frequently  pupils 
have  to  skim  texts  in  search  of  data  or  hypotheses  or  to  get 
facts  by  which  to  verify.  Nor  is  this  a  difficult  thing  for 
pupils  in  the  sixth  grade  and  above,  as  any  teacher  who  has 
practiced  the  plan  for  some  time  can  attest. 

Intensive  study,  however,  is  made  of  certain  topics  in  texts 
where  the  teacher  feels  it  necessary.  Gems  of  literature, 
arithmetic  processes  and  problems,  exact  facts  in  geography, 
and  others  come  vividly  to  mind.  Where  intensive  study  is 
made  it  should  be  done  exactly  and  carefully.  There  is  a 
place  for  skimming  and  a  place  for  the  complete  mastery 
of  portions  of  texts.  The  teacher  should  decide  which  is 
necessary  with  each  topic,  and  should  so  inform  the  student, 
who  should  be  held  responsible,  in  the  one  case,  for  the 
important  facts  to  be  gleaned  by  skimming,  and,  in  the  other, 
for  all  the  selected  matter. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

Bagley,  School  Management,  pp.  190-196. 
Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  83-105. 
McMurry,  How  to  Study,  pp.  31-84,  pp.  135-160. 
Sutherland,  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  pp.  172-181. 

EXERCISES 

i.     Take  a  chapter  in  this  text  and  run  through  it  stating 
explicitly  in  problem  form  as  a  question  in  each  case,  the 


294- 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


problems  of  the  whole  chapter,  each  section  and  each  para- 
graph. 

2.  Does  your  study  show  that  the  chapter  selected  is 
logically  constructed — i.  e.,  does  each  problem  or  paragraph 
bear  upon  the  problem  of  the  section  and  the  problems  of 
the  sections  upon  the  problem  of  the  chapter?     If  not,  do 
you  see  any  excuse  for  the  writer's  failure  to  preserve  a 
logical  organization? 

3.  Pick  out  from  your  reading  in  other  subjects  five 
cases  in  which  the  author  shows  how,  from  the  incomplete- 
ness that  has  gone  before,  a  new   problem  arises  which 
must  be  solved.  > 

4.  Find   examples   from   the   texts   you   are   using   or 
have  used  of  methods  by  which  the  author  gives  mechanical 
hints  to  show  what  the  problem  to  be  discussed  is  (as  in 
section  2  of  this  chapter). 

5.  Give  an  example  of  where  you,  if  a  teacher,  or  your 
teacher  has  varied  the  order  of  treatment  of  topics  in  a  text 
and  give  reasons  for  the  change. 

6.  Give,  from  a  paper  of  your  own,  an  illustration  tabu- 
lating the  data  you  collected  and  the   data  you   rejected 
before  writing  the  paper.    Tabulate  the  points  you  retained. 

7.  Describe  from  your  own  work  an  example  of  a  dif- 
ficult problem  in  which  you  formed  other  hypotheses  than 
those  you  finally  wrote.     Tabulate  the  rejected  hypotheses 
and  the  accepted  solution. 

8.  Prepare  a  lesson  in  which  the  pupils  are  expected 
to  use  several  texts  in  solving  the  problem  set. 

9.  Give  particular  instances  in  which  a  pupil  was  handi- 
capped by  an  attitude  too  strongly  skeptical.    Are  such  pupils 
rare  or  common? 

10.     Give  five  instances  in  which  recently  you  have  prac- 
ticed the  virtue  of  verifying  by  tests  or  objections  the  state- 


TEXT  BOOKS 


295 


ments  made  in  a  text  and  found  them  to  be  correct  so  far 
as  you  could  see. 

v  ii.  Give  five  instances  in  which  the  statements  did  not 
seem  to  you  to  hold  water  in  the  light  of  your  experience. 
12.  At  what  point  in  the  grades  is  it  practicable  to  be- 
gin to  have  children  use  texts  in  the  ways  described  in  this 
chapter  ?  Give  your  reasons  and  illustrations. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

QUESTIONING 

SECTION  i.     FUNCTION  OF  QUESTIONING 

The  function  of  questioning  as  a  racial  tool  is  to  secure 
information  from  some  one  who  has  more  information  than 
the  questioner.  This  is  the  ordinary  use  of  the  question  out- 
side school.  There  is  some  value  I  wish  to  control.  I  can- 
not do  so.  Then  I  question  some  one  who  I  believe  has  the 
information.  I  am  in  doubt  about  what  to  do.  I  ask  a 
friend,  "What  would  you  do?"  I  may  need  to  know  a  fact 
in  history.  I  question  an  historian.  I  may  have  an  unknown 
infection  on  my  hand.  I  speak  to  the  doctor.  Ordinarily 
outside  of  school  questions  are  asked  by  people  who  are 
seeking  information  and  not  by  those  who  give  the  in- 
formation. 

In  school  some  questions  are  asked  for  the  elemental  pur- 
pose of  getting  information.  But  the  majority  of  questions 
are  asked  by  the  teacher  who  knows  the  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion. In  fact,  if  the  teacher  asks  questions  of  which  he  does 
not  know  the  answer,  he  is  ordinarily  looked  upon  by  out- 
siders, at  any  rate,  as  incompetent. 

The  query  arises,  at  once,  should  not  the  function  of  ques- 
tions in  school  be  the  same  as  it  is  outside  of  school?  And 
the  answer  to  this  will  be  given  under  a  discussion  of  three 
types — informational,  testing,  and  developing  questions. 

Informational  Questions. — By  informational  questions 
is  meant  questions  that  are  asked  because  the  questioner  is 

296 


QUESTIONING  297 

seeking  for  information  that  he  does  not  possess.  Such 
questions  do  arise  in  school  work  and  are  provocative  of 
the  greatest  interest  when  asked.  The  interest  is  great 
because  the  one  who  answers  the  question  feels  that  he  is 
giving  something  of  value  which  he  possesses  to  one  who 
is  interested  but  does  not  possess  it.  This  is  the  motive  for 
all  language  as  seen  above  in  Chapter  XV. 

Pupils  may  ask  questions.  Unfortunately  they  do  not  ask 
as  many  questions  as  they  should.  Not  for  the  reason  that 
they  understand  everything,  but  because  they  do  not  recog- 
nize the  difficulties.  This  failure  to  recognize  difficulties 
is  due  partly  to  a  lack  of  interest  which  keeps  them  from 
going  into  the  subject  as  fully  as  they  might  if  interested, 
and  partly  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  things  learned  in 
school  are  not  carried  over  into  practice.  In  illustration  of 
this  latter  point  any  teacher  can  call  to  mind  cases  in  which 
pupils  have  said,  "Oh,  yes,  I  understand  that  perfectly," 
then  upon  applying  the  principle  find  that  they  did  not 
understand  it  at  all.  A  pupil  recognizes  a  difficulty  when  he 
cannot  understand,  verify,  or  apply  a  fact  or  method,  and  if 
he  cannot  work  it  out  for  himself  he  will  ask  questions. 
Manual  training,  cooking,  art,  and  all  subjects  capable  of 
concrete  application  are  especially  provocative  of  questions 
when  interest  is  present.  Other  subjects  are  equally  so  if 
they  are  studied  as  means  of  solving  the  learner's  problems. 

The  teacher  should,  also,  ask  informational  questions. 
This  does  not  mean  that  a  teacher  should  not  "know  his 
subject."  For  every  teacher  can  know  the  principles  of  his 
subject  and  yet  not  know  all  the  details.  Expert  chemists 
have  been  known  to  search  among  primitive  peoples  for  new 
methods  of  dyeing.  Expert  naturalists  can  gain  much  in- 
formation from  woodsmen  about  the  lives  of  forest  animals. 
The  expert  historian  cannot  remember  or  know  all  the 


298  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

facts  of  his  field  and  accepts  them  from  others.  Many  boys 
and  girls  can  give  the  teacher  information  about  various 
things  which  the  teacher,  though  adequately  trained,  has 
never  known. 

Many  teachers  fail  to  ask  these  questions,  partly  because 
some  teachers  are  not  alert  and  curious  and  do  not  wish  to 
know,  and  partly  because  they  are  unwilling  to  let  the  pupils 
feel  that  they  can  tell  them  anything  new.  Teachers  of  the 
latter  class  may  hesitate  because  they  think  it  will  under- 
mine their  authority.  But  this  is  wrong.  If  a  teacher  knows 
the  fundamentals  of  his  subject,  is  a  master  of  them,  he  will 
greatly  enhance  both  his  authority  and  the  esteem  with 
which  he  is  regarded  by  allowing  and  encouraging  pupils 
to  bring  in  what  they  know. 

There  is  probably  nothing  more  inspiring  to  pupils  than 
to  feel  that  they  can  make  an  original  contribution.  If 
Johnnie  can  utilize  in  class  a  knowledge  of  history  gained  by 
private  reading  he  will  be  joyous  in  his  work.  If  Mary  can 
show  a  fancy  stitch,  can  relate  a  pertinent  personal  experi- 
ence, she  will  feel  that  school  is  by  so  much  a  finer  and 
more  interesting  place. 

Sometimes  the  alert  teacher  can  bring  this  effect  about 
by  laying  stress  upon  personal  opinion.  In  a  history  lesson 
a  question  may  be  asked,  "What  is  the  explanation  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers'  selecting  Plymouth  as  a  landing  place?" 
The  teacher  knows  the  answer.  But  if  the  question  were 
asked  thus,  "What  do  you  think  is  the  reason  for  the  Pil- 
grim Fathers'  selecting  Plymouth  as  a  landing  place?"  it 
becomes  informational,  if  there  is  any  possibility  of  differ- 
ence of  opinion,  for  the  pupil  is  asked  to  give  his  explana- 
tion, which  may  easily  be  original. 

This  stressing  of  individual  opinion  is  very  valuable  wher- 
ever there  is  any  possibility  of  difference  of  opinion,  and  the 


QUESTIONING  299 

teacher  may  gather  much  information,  even  from  young  pu- 
pils, that  he  has  not  known  before.  It  is  valuable  to  repeat 
because  the  one  who  answers  the  question  has  the  motive  of 
all  language;  viz.,  to  give  his  interpretation  of  a  fact — 
information  which  n<j  one  else  has,  since  no  one  knows  what 
he  thinks.  It  is  so  important  that  teachers  should  cultivate 
it  and  utilize  it  whenever  possible. 

In  conclusion,  to  reiterate,  this  type  of  question  can  be 
used  with  greater  freedom  than  teachers  show  in  its  use. 
There  are  certain  things  that  a  teacher  is  supposed  to  know 
about  a  subject  and  he  should  know  more  about  them  than 
his  pupils  know.  But  there  are  myriads  of  things  of  great 
interest  to  pupils  which  he  need  not  know  and  which  he  can 
gain  from  his  pupils,  not  only  without  a  diminution  of  re- 
spect, but  with  an  increase  of  both  admiration  and  affection. 

Test  Questions. — By  test  questions  is  meant  questions 
which  are  asked  to  show  whether  the  pupils  have  or  have  not 
a  satisfactory  hold  upon  subject-matter. 

It  is,  of  course,  not  always  necessary  to  ask  questions  to 
find  this  out.  Solutions  to  problems  in  arithmetic,  when 
glanced  over,  indicate  usually  the  hold  the  pupils  have  upon 
principles.  Articles  made  in  handwork  and  drawing,  edi- 
bles cooked  in  domestic  art,  indicate  the  efficiency  of  the  stu- 
dent usually  without  questions.  In  all  concrete  material 
there  is  less  necessity  'for  test  questions.  The''  test  is  made 
by  the  teacher  by  inspecting  the  finished  product. 

In  subjects  more  isolated  from  concrete  application  such 
as  history,  literature,  civics,  physiology,  etc.,  it  is  not  easy  to 
test  in  all  cases  without  questions.  But  in  those  cases  the 
fewer  questions  asked  the  better,  if  they  are  of  the  right 
sort.  This  means  that  the  questions  should  be  topical,  and 
require  an  extended  reply  or  report.  This  will  obviate  the 
piecemeal  recitation  (in  which  the  teacher  asks  a  whole  series 


300 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


of  petty  questions)  that  calls  for  no  organization  by  the 
pupils. 

In  all  subjects  whether  capable  of  concrete  tangible  appli- 
cation or  not,  questions  are  necessary  sometimes  to  test 
points  that  are  not  obvious  in  the  finished  product.  A  stu- 
dent's knowledge  of  grammar  should  in  the  last  analysis  be 
tested  by  his  ability  to  use  grammatical  English,  but  some- 
times it  becomes  necessary  to  go  behind  the  correctly  used 
form  to  find  out  why  the  pupil  uses  the  form,  and  this  is 
done  by  a  question.  Sometimes  a  well-made  cake  will  not 
show  which  method  the  pupil  has  used.  This  will  be  dis- 
covered by  questions. 

Test  questions  are  usually  of  two  sorts.  They  may  em- 
phasize either  memory  or  thought.  Tests  of  memory  call  for 
a  reproduction  of  something  learned  before.  Asking  pupils 
to  repeat  a  definition,  a  multiplication  table,  a  selection  of 
poetry,  dates  and  rules  are  all  of  this  sort.  Tests  of  thought 
may  be  used  on  the  same  material.  The  pupil,  instead  of 
being  asked  to  define  a  grammatical  term,  may  be  asked  to 
parse  a  word  whose  class  is  defined  in  the  definition;  in- 
stead of  repeating  a  multiplica'tion  table,  he  may  be  given  a 
problem  in  multiplication ;  instead  of  being  given  a  rule,  he 
may  be  given  a  question  in  which  the  rule  is  to  be  applied. 

There  is  a  place  for  both  sorts  of  tests.  Teachers  are, 
however,  more  likely  to  use  the  first  than  the  second,  either 
because  they  do  not  think  about  testing  thought  or  because 
they  do  not  want  the  extra  trouble  involved. 

Developing  Questions. — By  this  term  is  meant  ques- 
tions which  are  asked  for  the  sake  of  directing  pupils  in 
their  thinking.  Their  purpose,  as  distinguished  from  that  of 
testing  a  question,  is  that  they  are  -  understood  by  both 
teacher  arid  pupil  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a  hint  or  suggestion. 

Sometimes  the  pupil  needs  help  in  a  solution.    The  teacher 


QUESTIONING  301 

may  ask,  "Have  you  all  the  data  you  ought  to  have  ?"  This 
question  directs  him  to  the  reconsideration  of  his  data  and 
may  be  just  what  he  needs.  Again  he  may  have  reached  a 
point  where  he  cannot  see  the  hypothesis.  The  teacher  may 
say,  "Will  this  do?"  Or  he  may  have  overlooked  a  point  in 
verification  and  ^the  teacher  may  say,  "Is  this  right?"  and 
set  him  to  work  again. 

In  the  following  quotation  a  series  of  developmental  ques- 
tions are  asked.  The  pupils  are  to  form  a  definition  (gen- 
eralization) of  number  in  nouns. 

INTRODUCTION 
Briefly  review  the  Noun. 

DEVELOPMENT 

1.  Let  several  pupils  give  statements  about  objects  and 
write  on  the  blackboard  such  as  are  useful. 

1.  The  window  is  easily  broken. 

2.  Books  are  on  the  desks. 

3.  Pencils  lie  on  the  table. 

4.  A  ruler  is  useful  for  measuring. 

5.  A  boy  enjoys  football. 

6.  Girls  play  the  piano. 

2.  Name  the  nouns  used  in  these  statements. 
ANSWER.     Books,  desks,  pencils,  table,  ruler,  etc. 

3.  How    many    objects   are    referred   to  by   the    word 
window? 

ANSWER.     One  object.  » 

To  how  many  objects  does  the  word  books  refer? 
ANSWER.     To  more  than  one. 

Name  all  those  nouns  in  above  sentences  used  to  indicate 
one  object. 

Name  all  those  nouns  meaning  more  than  one  thing. 


302  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  teacher  writes  these  in  two  columns  as  follows: 
One  thing  More  than  one  thing 

table,  pencils, 

window,  etc.  girls,  etc. 

4.  Suppose  we  wish  to  speak  of  more  than  one  window, 
what  word  should  we  use? 

ANSWER.     Windows. 

Deal  similarly  with  the  other  nouns  in  the  columns,  hav- 
ing pupils  use  the  nouns  in  each  case  in  a  sentence.  The 
opposite  columns  are  now  filled  out,  each  noun  represent- 
ing one  thing  having  in  the  opposite  column  its  other  form 
representing  more  than  one. 

5.  Compare  the  forms  of  the  nouns  in  first  column  with 
those  in  second  column.    The  slight  difference  in  form  will 
be  noted  by  the  class.      Why  are  these  forms  different? 

ANSWER.  To  denote  one  or  more  than  one  of  the  things 
for  which  the  noun  stands. 

TECHNICAL  TERM 

The  pupils  are  now  told  that  this  change  in  the  form 
of  the  noun  to  denote  one  or  more  than  one  object  is  called 
number. 

DEFINITION 

The  pupils  will  be  required  to  frame  a  simple  definition  of 
number  which  will  be  written  on  the  blackboard  and  the 
class  drilled  on  it. 

I  have  found  that  better  results  come  in  my  own  teaching 
from  changing  the  order  of  procedure  and  saying  after 
the  problem  has  been  raised,  "This  is  the  case  of  another 
noun  inflection  called  number.  In  these  sentences  on  the 
board  some  nouns  have  one  number,  some  another.  Can 
you  pick  out  the  two  classes?" 


QUESTIONING  303 

On  one  occasion  after  allowing  them  to  think  for  a  while 
several  of  the  children  picked  out  the  words  in  each  class. 

I  asked,  "How  many  things  do  these  nouns  in  the  first 
class  speak  of?" 

ANSWER.     "One." 

"How  many  the  second  class?" 

"More  than  one." 

I  then  said,  "nouns  of  the  first  class  are  said  to  have  singu- 
lar number;  of  the  second,  plural  number.  Try  them  out 
in  other  sentences.  What  is  a  good  definition  of  number?" 

This  took  about  three  minutes,  when  I  had  planned  for 
ten  minutes  in  development.  More  developing  questions 
were  not  necessary. 

On  another  occasion  my  question,  "Can  you  pick  out  the 
classes?"  did  not  bring  the  answer.  I  thought  possibly  the 
trouble  was  that  they  did  not  remember  the  nouns  as  well  as 
I  thought  they  would.  So  I  asked  them  to  pick  out  the 
nouns  which  I  underlined.  "Do  you  not  see  any  difference 
in  the  number  of  things  that  each  noun  stands  for  ?"  I  then 
asked. 

The  answer  was  forthcoming  and  we  proceeded  as  before. 

If  this  had  not  brought  the  ans\ver  I  should  probably  have 
drawn  a  circle  around  each  singular  noun  and  then  have 
asked  them  if  they  saw  any  difference  between  the  number 
of  things  specified  in  each  member  of  each  group. 

I  would  begin  with  the  statement  that  we  were  going  to 
discover  the  two  classes  of  number  of  nouns,  because  I  think 
it  is  better  to  let  the  pupils  see  the  trend  of  the  questions  in- 
stead of  developing  step  by  step.  It  is  better  because,  if  the 
teacher  goes  by  easy  steps,  each  of  which  the  pupil  can  take, 
only  the  teacher  is  conscious  of  possible  difficulties.  If  we 
set  our  objective  before  the  pupils  they  will  be  the  ones  to 
realize  their  difficulties  and  do  some  strong  thinking.  More- 


304 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


over,  we  save  time  because  pupils  grasp  things  more  easily 
than  we  think.  We  are  much  inclined  to  overdevelop  and 
subdivide  questions  to  the  point  where  the  pupils  do  not 
have  to  do  sturdy  thinking. 

When  a  pupil  needs  assistance  it  is  usually  better  to  give  it 
in  the  form  of  a  question  than  by  a  direct  statement.  When 
he  has  missed  some  data  it  is  better  to  say,  "Have  you  all 
your  data  ?"  than  to  remark,  "You  have  left  some  data  out." 
If  his  solution  is  wrong  it  is  better  to  say,  "Is  this  right?" 
than,  "This  is  wrong."  This  is  true  because  it  throws  the 
effort  of  thought  upon  him  and  he  can  often  by  thinking 
again  reach  your  knowledge.  But  if  you  had  stated  your 
knowledge  he  would  have  missed  the  pleasure  and  exercise 
of  reaching  it  for  himself. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  few  questions  are  true 
to  any  one  type.  They  are  sometimes  developmental  and 
test  questions  at  the  same  time,  or  are  informational  and  test 
at  one  time.  The  point  of  importance  is  that  they  serve  the 
three  functions  and  that  the  informational  questions  are  not 
utilized  sufficiently,  the  developing  questions  are  not  used 
with  sufficient  intelligence  and  comprehension,  and  that  test 
questions  should  emphasize  thought  rather  than  memory. 

SECTION  2.    STRUCTURE  OF  QUESTIONS 

Good  questions  possess  three  characteristics,  all  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  language  and  must  obey  its  laws.  These 
characteristics  are: 

(1)  They  must  contain  no  irrelevant  material. 

(2)  They  must  contain  all  relevant  material. 

(3)  They  must  be  understood  by  the  pupils. 
Conciseness. — The  questioner  desires  information  upon 

a  specific  problem.  It  is  supposed  that  he  knows  exactly 
what  his  problem  is.  Therefore,  good  language  usage  de- 


QUESTIONING  305 

mands,  for  one  thing,  that  he  have  nothing  in  his  question 
which  does  not  belong  there — that  is,  nothing  irrelevant. 
Errors  in  conciseness  usually  have  one  cause:  the  teacher 
does  not  think  exactly  and  does  not  know  exactly  what  he 
wants.  A  common  form  of  question  is,  What  about  the 
treaty  of  Versailles  ?  What  about  soils  ?  The  only  possible 
source  for  determining  what  the  answer  to  such  a  question 
should  be  is  the  text,  for  the  answer  is  supposed  to  be 
what  the  text  says. 

A  few  examples  are  the  following:  What  do  I  want  you 
to  do,  class?  What  does  this  time  remind  you  of?  Alex- 
ander was  the  prince  of  Macedonia,  was  he  not?  The  Per- 
sian fleet  did  not  compare  favorably  with  the  Greek,  did  it? 

It  was  a  lack  of  something, of  ???  Chivalry  centered 

not  only  around  Edward  but  his  son ,  the ? 

Irrelevant  Matter. — When  a  questioner  does  not  know 
exactly  what  he  wants,  he  may  add  much  to  a  question 
that  would  not  be  necessary  if  he  did  know  what  he  wanted. 
This  failure  to  know  the  point  in  a  situation  exactly  works 
against  both  conciseness  and  definiteness.  It  is  difficult  to 
make  a  question  definite  if  the  questioner's  state  of  mind 
is  not  definite.  It  is  only  by  chance  that  he  can  make  his 
statement  concise  since  he  is  likely  to  add  material  that  does 
not  belong  to  the  question. 

SECTION  3.    STANDARDS  FOR  QUESTIONS 

Standards  of  judging  the  efficiency  of  questions  are  in 
general  the  same ;  viz.,  they  must  be  concise,  definite,  com- 
plete, and  clear.  But  these  standards  require  supplementing 
when  applied  to  the  second  and  third  types. 

Testing  Questions. — In  addition  to  being  concise,  def- 
inite, complete,  and  clear,  testing  questions  should  be  as 
largely  topical  as  possible.  If  they  are  to  test  they  should 


306  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

test  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  organize  with  a  good  per- 
spective rather  than  his  ability  to  recollect  isolated  details. 
These  topical  questions  should,  if  necessary,  be  supplemented 
by  detail  questions.  Testing  questions  should  be  logically 
arranged,  since  a  systematic  knowledge  of  the  topic  is  being 
tested. 

Certain  sorts  of  objectionable  questions  need  to  be  avoided 
in  testing  and  developing  though  not  in  gathering  informa- 
tion. For  instance,  leading  questions  as,  "Robinson  Crusoe 
was  lost,  was  he  not?"  should  be  avoided.  Or  alternate  ques- 
tions, "Was  Columbus  a  Spaniard  or  an  Italian?"  Better 
in  the  first  case  to  say,  "Was  Robinson  lost?"  and  in  the 
second,  "WThat  was  the  nationality  of  Columbus?"  Gen- 
erally speaking,  questions  that  can  be  answered  by  yes  or  no 
should  be  avoided,  though  frequently  it  involves  much  to 
say  one  or  the  other. 

The  foregoing  classes  of  questions  are  objectionable  be- 
cause they  give  too  much  assistance  if  one  really  wishes  to 
test.  They  are  usually  easier  than  is  necessary  and  by 
slightly  rewording  them,  as  above,  the  teacher  can  get  fuller 
information  upon  the  knowledge  of  the  pupils. 

Teachers  who  know  children  can  bear  me  out  in  saying 
that  children  who  do  not  care  for  upholding  their  own  opin- 
ions will  watch  the  teacher  for  a  cue  as  to  the  right  sort  o'f 
answer.  They  watch  the  inflection  of  the  teacher,  his  ex- 
pression, how  he  uses  his  hands,  any  little  mannerism  that 
will  throw  light  on  what  the  teacher  expects.  Hence,  a 
teacher  should  watch  himself  to  see  that  his  questions  are 
free  from  inflectional  bias.  He  should  change  his  signals 
once  in  a  while.  It  is  amusing  to  the  teacher  and  salutary 
to  such  a  pupil  to  lead  him  on  occasionally  to  make  answers 
which,  to  the  class,  are  obviously  absurd.  A  few  such  les- 
sons often  cure  a  superficial,  lazy  boy. 


QUESTIONING  307 

Developing  Questions. — As  a  general  thing  developing 
questions  should  suggest  as  little  as  is  economical  of  the 
pupils'  time  and  effort.  Developing  questions  reveal,  sug- 
gest, a  possible  plan  of  procedure,  call  attention  to  an  error 
or  give  the  pupil  an  idea.  They  should  not  make  this  too 
easy,  should  not  "give  the  whole  thing  away."  On  the 
other  hand,  they  should  not  leave  him  to  flounder  beyond 
the  point  of  greatest  efficiency.  Illustrations  of  these  may 
be  found  scattered  throughout  the  text. 

SECTION  4.    THE  SOCRATIC  METHOD 

The  Socratic  Method  has  received  a  good  deal  of  atten- 
tion and  commendation  from  educators.  As  a  means  of 
getting  an  opponent  into  a  flat  contradiction  Socrates  was 
an  adept,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  free  translation  of  a 
conversation  between"  Socrates  and  one  of  his  pupils,  given 
by  Baldwin  as  an  example  of  the  Socratic  method  :x 

MENO — Socrates,  we  come  to  you  feeling  strong  and 
wise ;  we  leave  you  feeling  helpless  and  ignorant.  Why  is 
this? 

SOCRATES — I  will  show  you. 

[Calling  a  young  Greek,  and  making  a  line  in  the  sand, 
he  proceeded :] 

Boy,  how  long  is  this  line? 
BOY — It  is  a  foot  long,  sir. 
SOCRATES — How  long  is  this  line  ? 
BOY — It  is  two  feet  long,  sir. 

SOCRATES — How  much  larger  would  be  the  square  con- 
structed on  the  second  line  than  on  the  first  line  ? 
BOY — It  would  be  twice  as  large,  sir. 
[Under  the  direction  of  the  boy,  Socrates  constructs 
two  squares.] 
1  Baldwin,  School  Management,  p.  318. 


3o8  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

SOCRATES — How  much  larger  than  the  first  did  you  say 
the  second  square  would  be? 

BOY — I  said  "it  would  be  twice  as  large. 

SOCRATES — But  how  much  larger  is  it  ? 

BOY — It  is  four  times  as  large. 

SOCRATES — Thank  you,  my  boy ;  you  may  go. 

Meno,  that  boy  came  to  me  full  of  confidence,  thinking 
himself  wise.-  I  told  him  nothing.  By  a  few  simple  ques- 
tions I  led  him  to  see  his  error  and  discover  the  truth. 
Though  really  wiser,  he  goes  away  feeling  humbled. 

This  is  a  good,  crisp  recitation.  The  questions  are  well 
arranged,  produce  a  maximum  of  thought,  and  cover  the 
ground  in  an  artistic  manner. 

But,  it  is  only  a  paraphrase  of  the  original,  and  this  orig- 
inal which  follows  shows  that  practically  every  question  was 
asked  in  such  a  way  that  it  suggested  the  answer  and 
could  be  answered  by  yes  or  no.  For  instance : 

MENO; — Yes,  Socrates ;  but  what  do  you  mean  by  saying 
that  we  do  not  learn,  and  that  what  we  call  learning  is 
only  a  process  of  recollection?  Can  you  teach  me  how 
this  is? 

SOCRATES-**-!  told  you,  Meno,  just  now  that  you  were  a 
rogue,  and  now  you  ask  whether  I  can  teach  you,  when  T 
am  saying  that  there  is  no  teaching,  but  only  recollection ; 
and  thus  you  imagine  that  you  will  involve  me  in  a  con- 
tradiction. 

MENO — Indeed,  Socrates,  I  protest  that  I  had  no  such 
intention.  I  only  asked  the  question  from  habit;  but  if 
you  can  prove  to  me  that  what  you  say  is  true,  I  wish  that 
you  would. 

SOCRATES — It  will  be  no  easy  matter,  but  I  will  try  to 
please  you  to  the  utmost  of  my  power.  Suppose  that  you 


QUESTIONING  309 

call  one  of  your  numerous  attendants,  that  I  may  dem- 
onstrate on  him. 

MENO — Certainly.    Come  hither,  boy. 

SOCRATES — He  is  Greek,  and  speaks  Greek,  does  he 
not? 

MENO — Yes,  indeed ;  he  was  born  in  the  house. 

SOCRATES — Attend  now  to  the  questions  which  I  ask 
him,  and  observe  whether  he  learns  of  me  or  only  re- 
members. 

MENO — I  will. 

SOCRATES — Tell  me,  boy,  dp  you  know  that  a  figure  like 
this  is  square? 

BOY — I  do. 

SOCRATES — And  do  you  know  that  a  square  figure  has 
these  four  lines  equal? 

BOY — Certainly. 

SOCRATES — And  these  lines  which  I  have  drawn  through 
the  middle  of  the  square  are  also  equal  ? 

BOY — Yes. 

SOCRATES — A  square  may  be  of  any  size? 

BOY — Certainly. 

SOCRATES — And  if  one  side  of  the  figure  be  of  two 
feet,  and  the  other  side  be  of  two  feet,  how  much  will  the 
whole  be  ?  Let  me  explain :  If  in  one  direction  the  space 
was  of  two  feet,  and  in  the  other  direction  of  one  foot, 
the  whole  would  be  of  two  feet  taken  once? 

BOY — Yes. 

SOCRATES — But  since  this  is  also  of  two  feet,  there  are 
twice  two  feet? 

BOY — Yes. 

SOCRATES — How  many  are  twice  two  feet?  Count  and 
tell  me. 

BOY — Four,  Socrates. 


3io 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


SOCRATES — And  might  there  not  be  another  square 
*  twice  as  large  as  this,  and  having  like  this  the  lines  equal  ? 

BOY — Yes. 

SOCRATES — And  of  how  many  feet  will  that  be  ? 

BOY— Of  eight  feet. 

SOCRATES — And  now  try  and  tell  me  the  length  of  the 
line  which  forms  the  side  of  that  double  square:  this  is 
two  feet — what  will  that  be? 

BOY — Clearly,  Socrates,  it  will  be  double. 

SOCRATES — Do  you  observe,  Meno,  that  I  am  not  teach- 
ing the  boy  anything,  but  only  asking  him  questions ;  and 
now. he  fancies  that  he  knows  how  long  a  line  is  necessary 
in  order  to  produce  a  figure  of  eight  square  feet;  does 
he  not? 

Socrates'  objective  was  good.  He  stimulated  thought  by 
causing  self-contradiction,  but  his  individual  questions  were 
not  thought  provocative.  Plato  frequently  uses  his  mas- 
ter's audience  as  a  foil  to  glorify  the  intelligence  of  the 
master.  And  in  doing  this  he  has  the  audience  often  follow- 
ing blindly  and  making  admissions  that  a  person  of  ordinary 
alertness  would  hesitate  over  and  perhaps  refuse  to  make. 

Taking  each  question  by  itself,  Socrates  did  not  use  good 
developing  questions.  If  the  reader  will  observe  in  the 
portion  quoted  above,  the  auditors  si'mply  followed  Socrates 
along,  agreeing  at  every  step  and  often  agreeing  to  de- 
batable statements.  This  is  one  of  the  dangers  of  the 
developing  method.  It  may  make  the  learner  dependent. 
Pupils  cannot  always  have  the  teacher  present  to  blaze 
the  trail. 

SECTION  5.    ANSWERS 

Answers  to  questions  should  obey  the  ordinary  laws  of 
language.  They  should  be  concise,  definite  and  clear.  They 


QUESTIONING  31! 

should  be  complete  in  the  sense  that  nothing  should  be  left 
out.  Further  elaboration  is  not  necessary. 

One  query  is  raised,  Should  teachers  insist  upon  answers 
being  always  given  as  complete  sentences?  For  instance, 
What  is  the  longest  river  in  the  United  States?  In  answer 
to  this,  will  the  reply  "The  Mississippi  river"  do?  Or  should 
the  pupils  be  expected  to  answer,  "The  Mississippi  river  is 
the  longest  in  the  United  States?" 

Personally,  although  opposed  by  every  text  on  questioning 
that  mentions  the  matter,  the  writer  believes  that  the  only 
excuse  for  requiring  a  complete  statement  is  the  failure  of 
a  short,  crisp  answer  to  carry  the  idea.  Too  many  classes 
are  ruined  by  this  attempt  to  be  formal.  'In  rapid  fire  con- 
versation everywhere,  it  is  pure  pedantry  and  a  slowing  up 
of  interest  to  use  always  the  complete  statement.  Nobody 
insists  upon  complete  statements  but  teachers,  and  they  do 
not  use  them  themselves  outside  of  school,  and  usually  not  in 
school.  Occasionally  a  complete  sentence  is  necessary  but 
insistence  upon  it  makes  the  class  work  drag  and  die. 

SECTION  6.    CLASS  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 
A  few  simple  rules  of  class  management  are  so  obvious 
that  a  mere  mention  of  them  is  sufficient.    These  rules  are 
important   in  classes  but  would   not  be   in  individual  in- 
struction. 

Questions. — It  is  generally  stated  that  questions  should 
not  be  asked  in  rotation  because  any  idle  boy,  when  he  has 
answered  his  question,  can  loiter  till  the  next  question  comes 
to  him.  It  is  similarly  wise  to  ask  the  question  first  and 
name  the  pupil  to  answer  it  afterward.  Better  say,  "What 
is  the  best  method,  John?"  than,  "John,  what  is  the  best 
method?"  The  reason  is  that  in  the  first  question  everybody 
feels  that  he  has  a  chance,  or  may  be  called  upon,  and  will 


312 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


therefore  think.  In  the  second,  it  is  John's  lookout.  He 
has  the  chance  and  the  working  tone  of  the  class  deteriorates 
temporarily. 

Answers. — Class  answers  should  not  be  simultaneous. 
The  reasons  are  obvious.  If  it  is  a  testing  question  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  a  good  idea  of  what  each  pupil  knows.  If  it 
is  a  developing  question  the  bright  pupil  takes  the  lead.  If 
it  is  an  informational  question  the  teacher  in  the  babel  of 
voices  finds  out  nothing.  Occasionally  in  drill  work  con- 
certed answers  are  allowable,  but  otherwise  seldom,  if  ever. 

Teachers  should  not  get  into  the  habit  of  repeating 
answers.  It  slows  the  lesson.  If  the  pupils  do  not  hear  the 
answer  let  the  answerer  speak  louder. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

Baldwin,  School  Management,  Part  VI,  Chaps.  Ill  and 
VI. 

Betts,  The  Recitation,  pp.  55-78. 

Keith,  Elementary  Education,  pp.  152-63. 

Raub,  School  Management,  pp.  122-30. 

Stevens.  The  Question,  pp.  72-86. 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  pp. 
114-121. 

EXERCISES 

1.  How  will  group  work  assist  in  having  informational 
questions  asked  by  the  pupils? 

2.  Note  in  all  your  classes  for  two  days  what  informa- 
tional questions  were  asked  by  your  instructors. 

3.  Why  are  topical  questions  better  than  minute  ques- 
tions ? 

4.  Give  examples  of  test  questions  that  are  of  the  thought 
type  which  might  be  asked  on  this  chapter. 


QUESTIONING  313 

5.  Give  five  examples  of  where  teachers  have  led  pupils 
to  rescrutinize  their  work  by  asking  questions. 

6.  Give  the  cleverest  example  of  a  group  of  developing 
questions  of  which  you  know. 

7.  Add  to  the  examples  in  the  text  your  own  favorite 
stories  and  examples  of  questions  that  were  not  concise,  def- 
inite, or  above  the  heads  of  the  pupils. 

8.  Is  the  criticism  of  Socrates  a  fair  one  ?    Why  ? 


CHAPTER   XIX 

INDUCTION 

SECTION  i.    ORIGIN  OF  THE  INDUCTIVE  METHOD 

From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  a  habit  of  teachers  and 
parents  to  state  facts  on  mere  authority.  The  early  psychol- 
ogy of  childhood  overemphasized  the  memoriter  ability  of 
children  and  underestimated  their  reasoning  powers.  Hence, 
the  method  of  teaching  grammar  was  to  "give"  the  rules  and 
let  pupils  memorize  them  and  understand  them  as  well  as 
they  could. 

Kirkham  (1837)  deals  with  the  parts  of  speech  in  th^ 
way  as  the  following  quotation  will  illustrate. 

LECTURE    VIII — OF    PRONOUNS 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun  and  generally 
to  avoid  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  word.  A  pro 
noun  is  likewise  sometimes  a  substitute  for  a  sentence,  01 
member  of  a  sentence.1 

Then  follows  some  explanation  of  the  definition.  The 
pupils  read  this  and  the  teachers  elucidated  the  explanation. 

The  Herbartian  Contribution. — But  this  memoritei 
method  of  learning  rules  on  authority  had  its  keen-eyed 
critics  who  observed  the  weakness  of  such  a  system,  and 
many  attempts  were  made  to  correct  the  troubles.  To  the 
Herbartians  belong  the  credit  for  putting  the  remedies  upon 
a  practical  basis.  Their  Inductive  Method  has  done  more 

1  Samuel  Kirkham,  English  Grammar,  1837,  p.  95. 

314 


INDUCTION  315 

than  any  other  single  agency  to  give  the  pupil  a  chance  to 
be  more  than  a  memorizing  machine. 

The  essence  of  their  claim  is  that  pupils  may,  if  given 
proper  conditions,  discover  some  rules  for  themselves.  They 
do  not  need  to  take  them  on  authority.  Children  can  reason 
as  well  as  remember.  It  is  pointed  out  that  all  generaliza- 
tions have  arisen  by  observation  of  individual  cases.  Such 
a  proverb  as  "Honesty  is  the  best  policy"  is  based  on  the 
observation  of  many  cases.  The  theory  of  evolution  is  the 
outcome  of  an  examination  of  many  thousands  of  cases. 

Pupils  who  live  in  a  society  which  has  these  rules  and 
principles  already  formed  get  many  of  them  on  authority 
and  discover  many  for  themselves.  But  the  inductive 
method  endeavors  to  minimize  the  former  and  to  strengthen 
tendencies  toward  the  latter  by  training  pupils  to  do  their 
own  discovering  for  themselves. 

It  is  recognized,  of  course,  that  some  generalizations  are 
too  difficult  to  be  made  by  pupils,  and  these  have  to  be  told 
them  directly.  But  others  are  not  so  difficult  and  may  be 
made  by  the  pupils.  Then,  again,  some  are  important  and 
others  are  not.  In  all  these  cases  a  rule  may  be  laid  down 
that  difficult  and  relatively  unimportant  rules  should  be  told ; 
easy  and  important  rules  should  be  developed ;  difficult  and 
important  rules  or  easy  and  unimportant  rules  may  or  may 
not  be  developed,  as  the  teacher-  feels  will  be  wisest. 

The  Herbartians  made  a  mistake  in  that  they  overempha- 
sized the  inductive  method  by  making  its  application  too 
general.  "One  leading  aim  of  instruction  in  every  impor- 
tant subject  is  the  mastery,  in  the  full  sense,  of  its  general 
truths,"  says  McMurry.1  This  is  a  moderate  statement,  but 
for  several  years  the  practical  working  of  the  Five  Formal 
Steps  demanded  the  forming  of  a  generalization  in  every 

1  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  p.  12. 


316  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

unit  of  subject-matter.  As  time  went  on  it  became  obvious 
that  not  every  lesson  has  a  generalization  as  its  aim,  and 
so  the  inductive  method  has  now  begun  to  take  its  proper 
place  and  is  proving  itself  to  be  a  valuable  method  in  that 
place.  That  is,  the  inductive  method  is  of  great  value  in 
those  lessons  in  which  general  truths  or  rules  are  to  be 
formulated. 

SECTON  2.  DEFINITION  AND  ANALYSIS  OF  INDUCTION 
Definition. — Before  showing  how  the  inductive  method 
works  in  teaching  it  is  advisable  to  discuss  the  nature  of 
induction.  For  it  is  not  a  new  method.  It  has  been  in  use 
in  the  sciences  as  a  definite  method  since  the  time  of  its 
enunciation  by  Francis  Bacon  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  teaching,  it  has  been  utilized  for  only  a  century  since  its 
enunciation  by  Herbart  in  the  early  nineteenth  century  and 
in  America  for  only  a  few  years  since  its  introduction  by 
the  McMurrys,  De  Garmo  and  other  disciples  of  Herbart  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Creighton  describes  induction  as  follows  r1  "In  induction 
.  .  .  the  starting  point  must  be  the  particular  facts,  and 
the  task  which  thought  has  to  perform  is  to  discover  the  gen- 
eral law  of  their  connection." 

Function  of  Induction. — Throughout  the  text  we  have 
laid  stress  upon  the  fact  that  pupils  are  always  striving  to 
control  values.  In  this  effort  induction  plays  a  very  impor- 
tant role.  For,  obviously,  if  we  can  classify  values  so  that 
the  same  method  of  control  may  be  used  for  any  member  of 
a  class  of  values,  we  will  save  time  and  effort.  The  dray 
man  forms  the  generalizations :  books  are  heavy,  bedding  is 
light.  This  saves  him  many  a  wrench  of  the  back ;  for  when 
he  lifts  a  particular  box  of  books  or  bundle  of  bedding,  he 

1  An  Introductory  Logic,  pp.  173-4. 


INDUCTION  317 

can  set  his  muscles  expertly  so  as  to  lift  them  with  the 
greatest  amount  of  ease.  If  a  summer  resort  visitor  knows 
that  the  sun  burns  her  face,  she  can  always  protect  herself 
in  each  individual  case.  "Beware  the  Greek  bearing  gifts" 
is  a  proverb  that  in  ancient  days  helped  to  protect  life  and 
property.  The  rule  "Poisons  Kill"  helps  one  as  soon  as  he 
handles  anything  poisonous. 

The  function  of  induction,  then,  is  to  simplify  the  control 
of  values  by  arranging  appropriate  objects  in  classes  and 
by  finding  out  a  single  method  of  control  that  will  handle 
each  member  of  the  class  concerned. 

This  must  be  remembered  if  induction  is  to  have  its  due, 
that  we  do  not  make  rules  and  generalizations  just  for  the 
sake  of  having  them,  but  because  we  wish  to  apply  them  in 
handling  the  concrete  situations  of  life.  Just  to  know  that 
all  men  are  mortal  amounts  to  little  unless  it  influences  our 
actions  by  making  us  build  with  the  expectation  of  death 
arriving  some  day,  or  by  assuaging  our  sorrow  \vhen  some 
one  dies.  Rules  of  grammar  are  of  little  use  unless  they 
help  us  to  place  the  particular  to  which  the  rule  applies. 
Arithmetic  rules  are  valueless  unless  they  are  applied  to  par- 
ticular cases.  In  other  words,  we  make  generalizations  only 
in  order  that  we  can  handle  particulars  easily,  and  efficiently. 

Essentials  of  Induction. — Induction  consists  of  four 
elements.  These  are  the  observation  of  particulars,  their 
comparison,  and  the  formation  of  a  generalization  and  veri- 
fication. In  teaching  the  definition  of  a  noun  (a  generaliza- 
tion) a  dozen  cases  of  the  use  of  the  noun  can  be  studied, 
say  in  sentences,  as: 

The  old  man  hurt«his  foot. 
John  Smith  is  brown-eyed. 
Chicago  is  a  large  city,  etc. 

The  words  man,  foot,  John  Smith,  Chicago,  city,  may  be 


3i8  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

studied,  then  compared,  and  from  these  a  rule  can  be  formed 
— that  each  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place  or  thing.  If  the 
particular  cases  are  not  first  presented,  and  if  the  pupils  do 
not  compare  them,  then  it  is  not  induction.  The  teacher 
merely  "gives"  the  rule. 

Examples. — Frequently  pupils  form  inductions  for  them- 
selves as  in  the  following  case  cited  by  Adams  i1  "A  person 
who  knew  no  German  was  called  upon  to  make  a  vocabu- 
lary that  included  over  two  thousand  German  nouns.  She 
had  to  indicate  in  each  case  the  gender,  the  genitive,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  noun.  Her  method  was  the  straightforward 
one  of  looking  up  each  word  in  a  standard  German  dic- 
tionary, and  copying  out  the  relevant  details.  As  the  work 
progressed,  she  found  that  she  could  anticipate  with  increas- 
ing accuracy  the  gender  and  genitive  of  each  new  noun  as  it 
presented  itself;  till,  towards  the  end,  she  was  strongly 
tempted  to  depend  upon  her  general  impression,  without 
troubling  to  verify  it  by  reference  to  the  dictionary." 

This  shows  that  unconsciously  the  pupil  gained  a  mechan- 
ical hold  upon  the  gender  and  genitive  form  of  the  nouns. 
Nor  is  this  by  any  means  uncommon. 

Another  case  cited  by  Adams  in  the  same  connection  illus- 
trates this  same  fact  further  in  a  very  interesting  way. 

"A  still  more  striking  case  is  one  that  occurred  under  the 
deplorably  bad  system  of  payment  by  results,  that  used  to 
obtain  in  England,  in  which  the  teacher's  professional  repu- 
tation depended  upon  the  percentage  of  pupils  he  could  con- 
trive to  squeeze  through  certain  individual  examination  tests 
at  the  end  of  each  school  year.  A  harassed  teacher,  who 
had  not  enough  time  to  attend  ^>  the  dullards  that  under 
this  system  were  the  persons  of  chief  importance,  tried  to 
get  rid  of  the  troublesome  clever  pupils  in  her  youngest 

1  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching,  p.  28. 


INDUCTION 


319 


class  by  keeping  them  busy  with  long  addition  sums,  while 
she  devoted  all  her  energy  to  getting  her  dullards  to  work 
little  sums  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  obtain  the  coveted 
pass.  Through  much  practice  the  clever  pupils  were  able 
to  work  the  long  sums  so  rapidly  that  they  were  continually 
worrying  the  poor  teacher  by  coming  back  for  more.  To 
save  time  in  giving  out  fresh  sums,  she  dictated  only  one 
line,  say  987,526,  and  told  the  pupils  to  repeat  that  line  on 
their  slates  another  eight  times,  making  nine  lines  in  all,  and 
then  add  the  whole.  The  remarkable  thing  was  that  after 
some  weeks  of  this  ingenious  labor-saving  device  the  poor 
teacher  was  more  harassed  than  ever.  The  children  appeared 
to  have  acquired  a  positively  uncanny  speed  in  addition.  On 
investigation  it  was  found  that  the  pupils  had  gradually 
noticed  that  there  was  something  peculiarly  symmetrical 
about  the  new  sums  the  teacher  was  giving  them.  Some  of 
the  more  intelligent  among  them  began  to  see  that  it  was  a 
pity  to  waste  time  adding  up  a  column  of  nine  eights  when 
they  had  added  up  such  a  column  a  little  while  ago.  They 
began,  therefore,  to  keep  a  note  of  results  for  future  use, 
and  gradually  gave  up  adding  at  all,  except  in  the  matter  of 
carrying  from  one  column  to  another.  The  step  from  this 
to  pure  multiplication  was  easy,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
was  not  made  by  the  pupils  themselves ;  the  secret  of  multi- 
plication was  communicated  to  them  (for  a  consideration)  by 
certain  pupils  in  higher  classes  to  whom  the  young  experi- 
menters had  been  talking  about  the  peculiar  sums  they  had 
lately  been  having.  The  net  result  was  that  those  pupils 
learnt  in  a  few  weeks,  and  writh  great  satisfaction,  the  full 
meaning  of  the  multiplication  table  and  its  application,  mat- 
ters that  under  ordinary  circumstances  take  a  whole  school 
year  to  master." 

Generalizations. — The  term  generalisation   is  rather  un- 


320  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

usual  in  common  speech,  But  its  synonyms  are  well  known. 
One  of  these  is  rule,  since  a  rule  can  be  applied  in  many 
cases.  Laws  are  customary  ways  of  acting.  Many  cases 
are  observed  to  act  uniformly,  hence,  law.  Definitions  apply 
to  a  whole  group.  Principles  are  generalizations  and  prov- 
erbs are  general  truths — more  usually  half-truths. 

SECTION  3.    INDUCTION  SPECIAL  FORM  OF  PROBLEM 

Control  of  Values. — In  chapter  12  we  discussed  the 
methods  of  control  of  values  and  particularly  control  when 
a  problem  was  present.  We  found  at  that  time  that  in 
reaching  a  solution  of  a  problem  we  collect  data,  make  hy- 
potheses, and  verify  hypotheses  when  made. 

Now,  in  induction  we  have  a  special  case  of  this  process. 
In  other  words,  the  problem  is  that  of  rinding  a  general 
truth.  There  are  plenty  of  other  sorts  of  problems.  For 
example,  the  problem  may  be  to  apply  a  general  truth.  But 
in  all  cases  except  where  we  wish  to  form  rules,  principles, 
or  definitions  we  do  not  use  the  inductive  method. 

Problem. — If  we  describe  induction  in  this  other  ter- 
minology we  may  say  first,  that  in  induction  our  problem 
is  to  form  a  generalization.     We  reach  a  point  where  we 
feel  that  we  ought  to  have  some  rule,  a  definition,  or  a  prin 
ciple  by  which  to  go. 

Data. — Our  data  are  our  particular  cases,  and  all  thf 
other  things  we  know.  But  essentially  we  must  have  par- 
ticular cases,  plenty  of  them,  so  that  we  may  observe  and 
compare  them.  In  the  case  of  the  girl  with  the  German 
nouns  just  cited  the  data  were  the  different  nouns  which 
were  handled  one  by  one.  In  the  case  of  the  bright  pupils 
the  data  were  groups  of  9  digits  exactly  alike.  To  these 
they  added  their  past  experience. 

Hypothesis. — The  hypothesis  is  the  guess  at  a  generali- 


INDUCTION 


321 


ration.  After  we  have  studied  a  few  cases  it  is  natural 
for  the  mind  to  jump  to  a  generalization.  Sometimes  we 
do  this  when  we  examine  the  first  case.  Sometimes  the 
guess  is  right  and  frequently  it  is  wrong. 

Rules  for  Forming  Hypothesis  in  Induction. — Logi- 
cians have  worked  out  several  rules  of  procedure  in  forming 
hypotheses.  These  have  only  a  slight  application  to  the 
rough  and  tumble  work  of  pupils  in  the  grades  or  in  the 
high  school,  but  they  are  of  some  use  to  teachers  and  are 
mentioned  here  simply  that  those  students  who  desire  to  do 
so  may  examine  them.  For  a  discussion  see  Creighton's 
Logic  and  De  Garmo's  Principles  of  Secondary  Instruction, 
page  references  in  which  are  given  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 

Solution. — The  solution  is  the  correct  generalization 
that  is  finally  accepted. 

Verification. — The  proof  comes  with  the  application  of 
the  rules  and  definitions  to  particular  cases. 

SECTION  4.    THE  HERBARTIAN  FIVE  FORMAL  STEPS 

The  Herbartians  apply  the  inductive  method  to  teaching 
in  what  is  known  as  the  Fire  Formal  Steps.    These  are : 
Preparation  Presentation  Comparison 

Generalization  Application 

The  Preparation  step  reviews  necessary  past  experience 
and  states  the  aim  (the  formation  of  a  generalization). 

The  Presentation  step  studies  the  particular  cases. 

The  Comparison  step  compares  these  particulars. 

The  Generalization  step  draws  a  generalization. 

The  Application  step  applies  the  generalization. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  and  last  steps  are  added 
to  the  inductive  process,  and  that  the  second,  which  deals 
with  particulars,  the  third  which  compares  them,  and  the 


322 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


fourth  which  generalizes,  are  the  steps  that  deal  with 
induction. 

I  shall  proceed  in  this  discussion  by  giving  examples  of 
the  use  of  the  method  as  worked  out  by  F.  M.  and  C.  A. 
McMurry,  and  will  then  make  one  or  two  suggestions  about 
points  at  which  the  method  might  be  improved. 

Preparation. — The  Herbartians  say  that  the  first  step 
in  learning  a  generalization  is  the  preparation  of  the  pupils' 
minds  for  the  new  truth.  The  preparation  consists  in  the 
review  or  calling  up  of  past  experience  that  will  be  of  use 
to  the  pupils  in  learning  the  new.  Because  the  child  learns 
new  things  only  in  terms  of  the  old,  as  the  doctrine  of  apper- 
ception teaches  us.  "During  this  step  as  many  related  ideas 
as  possible  should  be  called  up  by  the  teacher,  especially 
those  which  are  closely  welded  to  the  personality  of  the 
child.  No  advance  work  should  be  attempted  during  this 
preparatory  step."  The  whole  idea  is  to  call  into  conscious- 
ness what  the  children  already  know  about  the  subject  to 
be  attacked. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  aim  of  the  lesson,  the  point  to  be 
learned,  should  be  stated  in  concrete,  definite,  simple,  short 
and  attractive  words. 

We  can  do  no  better  in  making  this  clear  than  by  quoting 
one  or  two  lessons  cited  by  McMurry. 

In  a  lesson  on  the  Parable  of  the  Tares  he  says:1  "The 
majority  of  the  questions  following,  although  not  all,  could 
be  given  to  ten-year-old  children. 

"Aim. — Let  us  see  what  Christ  meant  by  his  story  about 
removing  weeds  from  the  wheat. 

"Have  you  found  weeds  in  a  garden  of  your  own  ?  How 
are  they  gotten  rid  of?  Why  is  that  so  necessary?  Is 
there  any  danger  to  the  other  plants  in  so  doing  ?  Have  you 

1  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  pp.  283-4. 


INDUCTION 


323 


seen  weeds  growing  in  grain  in  the  country?  Where?  In 
what  grains  ?  Is  it  more  or  less  dangerous  to  remove  weeds 
from  wheat  than  from  your  flowers  or  vegetables  in  the 
garden?  Why?  What,  then,  does  the  farmer  do  with 
them?" 

In  a  lesson  on  The  Irrigation  of  Arid  Lands  he  proceeds 
as  follows:1 

"First  Step. — How  can  the  dry  lands  of  some  of  our  far 
western  states  be  watered  from  the  rivers? 

How  are  our  farms  and  gardens  in  Illinois  supplied  with 
moisture?  Do  you  know  of  any  of  our  states  where  there 
is  little  or  no  rainfall  on  the  plains?  Point  out  on  the  map 
the  dry  region  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. What  do  you  know  from  your  geographies  of  the 
climate  of  this  strip  of  country?  What  business  may  be 
carried  on  here?  Grazing  and  mining.  Have  you  heard  of 
people  who  crossed  the  "plains"?  Where  are  the  plains? 
Recall  Fremont's  trip  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Can  crops 
of  grain  or  vegetables  be  raised  on  the  plains?  What  are 
the  difficulties?  What  rivers  flow  across  this  region,  and 
in  which  direction?  Would  it  be  possible  to  get  the  water 
from  these  rivers  upon  the  dry  uplands,  so  as  to  use  them 
for  purposes  of  agriculture  ?  Tell  what  you  may  have  heard 
of  irrigating  ditches." 

It  will  be  observed  in  both  these  cases  that  the  aim  is 
stated  clearly  and  that  upon  most  of  the  points  to  arise, 
related  information  has  been  called  up. 

Presentation. — In  this  step  the  particular  cases  are 
studied  by  the  pupils.  If  we  are  hunting  for  a  definition  of 
noun,  many  sentences  containing  nouns  are  studied  and  the 
particulars  in  each  discussed  to  see  what  each  one  does. 

If  a  rule  in  algebra  is  being  developed,  the  particular  cases 

1  Op.  cit,  pp.  257-8. 


324  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

are  examined.  For  instance,  the  pupils  may  be  hunting  for 
a  rule  for  the  expansion  of  a  square.  They  may  work  out 
by  multiplication  the  following  : 


(c-f  d)2  =  c2 
(x  +  y)2  =  x2 
(m  -(-  n)2  =  m2  -)-  2mn  -)-  n2 


y2 


These  may  be  worked  out  by  ordinary  multiplication,  tabu- 
lated, and  made  ready  for  comparison. 

In  the  illustration  from  McMurry1  on  Irrigated  Lands 
four  different  irrigated  sections  are  studied.  The  first  on 
the  South  Fork  of  the  Platte  near  Denver,  with  great  ful- 
ness, the  others  the  Arkansas,  at  Canon  City,  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte,  with  less  care. 
The  lesson  on  the  Tares  mentioned  above  proceeds  as 
follows  : 

"a.  Now  let  us  listen  to  the  story  that  Christ  told  about 
removing  weeds  from  the  wheat.  That  was  in  Palestine, 
and  the  particular  weeds  he  mentioned  are  called  tares. 
They  are  said  to  look  very  much  like  wheat.  (Read  Mat- 
thew xiii:24~3i.)  -(If  time  allows,  at  least  a  portion  of 
this  parable  could  be  developed  instead  of  read.)  The  chil- 
dren, after  hearing  or  reading  the  parable,  relate  the  same 
probably  two  or  three  times,  in  order  to  see  clearly  the  con- 
crete situation.  Proceeding,  we  say,  "Why,  then,  were  the 
servants  not  allowed  to  pull  up  the  tares?"  The  chief 
answer  is  that  in  so  doing  they  would  root  up  the  wheat, 
because  the  tares  stand  so  close  to  the  wheat  that  one  could 
not  be  pulled  up  without  injury  to  the  other. 

b.  Christ's  disciples  hardly  knew  what  he  meant  by  this 
story,  and  they  asked  him  about  it.  Do  you  think  you  can 

1  Op.  cit.,  pp.  258  ff, 


INDUCTION  325 

possibly  tell  what  is  meant?  Let  us  see.  He  says  that  a 
man  having  a  field  of  grain  may  be  compared  with  the  king- 
dom of  Heaven.  If  so,  whom  might  the  sower  represent? 
Answer — Christ.  And  what  would  the  field  be?  Answer — 
the  world.  Who  would  be  meant  by  the  good  seed?  Who 
by  the  tares?  When  will  the  harvest  be?  Who  are  the 
reapers  ?" 

Comparison. — In  this  step,  as  its  name  suggests,  a 
comparison  of  the  particulars  presented  and  studied  in 
the  presentation  is  made. 

In  its  simplest  form  the  step  consists  of  one  question : 
"In  what  respect  are  these  particulars  alike?"  If  this  cannot 
be  answered,  supplementary  questions  are  necessary.  For 
instance,  in  the  rule  for  squaring,  binomials  the  pupils  may 
not  see  the  resemblance.  If  they  do  not,  other  questions 
may  need  to  be  asked,  such  as,  What  is  the  first  term  of 
the  binomial?  See  where  it  is  found  in  the  expanded  form. 
What  is  the  second  term?  Where  is  it  found  in  the  expan- 
sion? What  has  happened  to  the  first  term  all  through  the 
expansion?  What  to  the  second?  Now,  again,  in  what 
respects  are  they  alike? 

In  the  lesson  on  Irrigation,  McMurry1  proceeds  as 
follows : 

"Third  Step. — Compare  now  these  four  rivers  —  the 
South  Fork  of  the  Platte,  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte, 
the  Arkansas,  and  the  Rio  Grande — as  related  to  the  moun- 
tains and  plains,  as  situated  in  reference  to  the  mining  cities, 
and  as  illustrating  facts  of  irrigation  as  now  carried  on. 
What  is  the  relative  importance  of  the  small  streams  as 
compared  with  the  large  ones  for  purposes  of  irrigation?" 

Generalization. — When  comparison  is  efficiently  carried 
on  the  common  element  is  picked  out,  and  this,  of  course, 

1  Op.  cit,  p.  268. 


326  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

is  the  generalization.  In  the  algebra  question  the  rule, 
square  of  first  plus  square  of  second  plus  twice  product  of 
first  and  second,  is  the  generalization.  In  the  lesson  on 
Irrigation,  McMurry  gives  the  generalization  as  follows: 

"Fourth  Step. — In  summing  up  the  common  features 
of  these  river  valleys  we  may  observe  that  they  are  all  in 
an  arid  region,  that  they  'derive  their  water  supply  from 
the  mountains ;  as  they  emerge  into  the  plains  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  their  waters  are  carried  out  to  enrich  the 
plains  by  means  of  artificial  channels.  The  smaller  tribu- 
tary streams  are  used  in  a  similar  way.  The  presence  of 
important  mining  cities  near  these  river  valleys  and  in  them 
makes  a  ready  market  for  all  the  products  raised  by  irriga- 
tion. The  present  wealth  and  population  of  these  districts 
depend  largely  upon  the  irrigating  ditches." 

Application  we  shall  leave  for  Chapter  XXIII. 

Criticism. — As  stated  before,  the  preparatory  step  of  the 
Herbartians  reviews  past  experience  and  states  the  aim.  In 
the  lesson  on  the  Tares  it  seems  to  me  that  since  the  real 
problem  of  this  parable  is  what  to  do  with  wicked  people, 
if  there  is  to  be  any  reviewing  it  should  be  a  review  along 
that  line.  We  might  better  take  up  with  the  pupils  what  should 
be  done  with  very  wicked  people  who  were  hurting  the 
good  ?  Is  capital  punishment  right,  etc.  ?  And  then  go  to 
the  parable  to  see  what  Christ  thought  about  the  matter. 

This  review  for  motive  is  the  only  one  that  should  be 
given  at  the  beginning  of  this  lesson.  If  the  problem  has 
arisen  in  earlier  lessons,  even  that  review  would  not  be 
necessary.  Review  for  aid  in  solution  is  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter XXI.  It  would  be  enough  to  say,  "You  recollect  our 
argument  the  other  day  about  what  to  do  with  wicked  people, 
etc.,  and  I  promised  to  show  you  what  Christ  said.  Here 
it  is,  etc." 


INDUCTION  327 

The  matter  which  these  authors  take  up  in  the  preparatory 
step  might  better  come  later,  if  needed,  when  the  interpre- 
tation is  to  be  made. 

Then,  with  the  problem  set,  the  pupils  should  read  the 
selection  over,  and  this  should  be  followed  by  the  question, 
"On  which  side  of  this  argument  does  this  parable  of 
Christ's  show  him  to  be?"  If  they  answer  correctly,  they 
should  then  be  asked,  "What  makes  you  think  so?"  And 
here  we  would  have  the  motive  for  a  careful  study  of  the 
story.  If  they  did  not  see  which  side  Christ  took,  again  we 
would  have  a  strong  motive  for  studying  the  story  and  inter- 
preting it. 

Another  example  in  which  the  whole  inductive  develop- 
ment would  be  changed  by  raising  the  problem  of  the  lesson 
at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  is  afforded  in  Sutherland's 
excellent  little  book  on  The  Teaching  of  Geography.  An 
illustrative  lesson  found  on  pp.  149-153  is  quoted: 

"AN  ILLUSTRATIVE  INDUCTIVE  LESSON 
(Planned  for  a  Seventh  Grade) 

Geographical  principle  to  be  induced:  "The  location  of 
cities  is  often  caused  by  breaks  in  transportation." 

I.      PREPARATION 

What  is  the  chief  product  of  our  home  region  ?  -To  what 
place  is  it  shipped?  How?  Southwestern  Wisconsin  once 
produced  much  lead.  Where  was  it  taken?  Why  taken  to 
Galena?  How?  What  did  the  people  of  Galena  do  with 
the  lead?  Where  is  Galena?  Show  it  on  the  map.  On 
what  river  is  it  located?  Why  not  located  at  the  mouth 
of  La  Fevre  river  ?  Why  not  at  its  source  ?  What  deter- 
mined how  far  up  the  river  Galena  should  be  located  ?  Then 
what  determined  the  location  of  Galena? 


328  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

What  supplies  were  needed  in  the  region  of  Platteville  in 
early  days?  Where  did  the  supplies  come  from?  By  what 
route  ?  Trace  the  route.  What  was  done  with  the  supplies 
when  they  had  been  taken  as  far  by  boat  as  possible  ?  What 
might  this  transferring  point  become? 

A  few  days  ago  we  learned  that  New  York  is  the  richest 
city  in  America.  Where  is  New  York  City  located?  Point 
to  it  on  the  map. 

Pupils'  Problem  No.  i. — Let  us  find  out  how  New  York 
City  came  to  be  located  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river. 

PRESENTATION 

From  what  place  did  the  first  settlers  of  New  York  come? 
How  did  they  come?  Were  their  ships  large?  Could  they 
easily  sail  up  the  river?  Why  not?  Who  inhabited  this 
region  when  the  white  men  came?  How  did  the  Indian 
get  his  living?  Did  he  have  any  products  which  the  white 
men  might  want  ?  What  ?  Where  could  the  white  man  sell 
the  furs?  What  could  he  give  the  Indian  in  exchange  for 
them?  Where  were  the  "trinkets"  secured?  How  could 
the  Indians  get  their  furs  to  the  white  men?  Could  the 
white  men  reach  the  Indians  in  the  ocean  ship?  Could  the 
Indians  reach  the  ocean  ships  in  their  canoes  ?  Where,  then, 
could  the  white  men  and  Indians  best  meet  to  trade  ?  What 
might  you  call  such  a  point  ?  What  do  we  find  there  today  ? 
Then  what  determined  the  location  of  New  York  City  ? 

A  similar  study  is  made  of  St.  Paul  and  Chicago. 

IV.     COMPARISON   AND   GENERALIZATION 

Let  us  now  compare  these  three  places  which  we  have 
studied,  to  see  if  we  can  find  one  thing  true  of  all  of  them. 

In  the  case  of  New  York,  what  were  the  white  men  forced 
to  do  with  the  supplies  and  trinkets  they  brought  to  the 
region  for  the  settlers  and  the  Indians?  (Land  them.) 


INDUCTION 


329 


What  did  the  Indian  have  to  do  with  his  furs?  Could  he 
carry  them  farther  than  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river? 
In  this  regard,  examine  both  St.  Paul  and  Chicago.  What 
do  we  find  true  of  all? 

At  this  point  the  pupils  will  give  a  crude  general  state- 
ment, possibly  something  like  this : 

In  each  case  we  see  that  the  white  trader  brought  his 
things  as  far  as  he  could  without  unloading,  and  that  the 
Indian  brought  his  furs  as  near  the  trader  as  he  could 
without  unloading.  These  points  were  near  together.  Be- 
tween them  a  trading-post  was  made,  and  later  a  town  grew. 

The  following  questions  may  be  asked  about  the  general 
statement  in  order  to  throw  it  into  the  technical  form : 

What  might  you  say,  then,  occurred  in  the  routes  of 
transportation  for  the  white  man's  goods?  The  Indian's 
route  ?  Answer,  a  break.  What  do  breaks  in  transportation 
cause?  What  determined  the  location  of  New  York  City? 
Why  has  it  since  become  so  large?  What  determined  the 
location  of  St.  Paul?  Of  Chicago?  Why  have  they  become 
large  cities?  What  sometimes  determines  the  location  of 
cities  ? 

If  it  is  decided  (and  it  is  almost  mandatory)  to  carry  this 
principle  through  its  deductive  phase,  the  mode  of  proce- 
dure may  be  seen  in  the  Deductive  Lesson  in  the  next 
chapter." 

Criticism. — Now,  if  we  begin  this  lesson  by  saying, 
Why  were  New  York,  St.  Paul,  and  Chicago  located  where 
they  are?  we  could  omit  all  of  the  first  three  paragraphs 
of  preparation  and  begin  section  I  with  the  question,  Why 
was  New  York  located  where  it  is?  The  remainder  of 
section  i  has  been  shortened  in  actual  teaching  as  follows : 
Why  did  they  not  go  farther  up  the  river  to  locate  it  ?  Why 
did  thev  locate  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  at  all? 


330  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

A  serious  difficulty  arises  as  soon  as  an  attempt  is  made 
to  apply  the  Five  Formal  Steps  to  every  unit.  An  excellent 
example  of  this  is  found  in  Cox,  Literature  in  the  Common 
Schools,  pp.  114-126. 

The  lesson  is  Old  Ironsides,  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
which  I  reproduce  here : 

OLD  IRONSIDES 

Ay,  tear  her  tattered  ensign  down! 

Long  has  it  waved  on  high, 
And  many  an  eye  has  danced  to  see 

That  banner  in  the  sky  ; 
Beneath  it  rung  the  battle  shout, 

And  burst  the  cannon's  roar ; — 
The  meteor  of  the  ocean  air 

Shall  sweep  the  clouds  no  more. 

Her  deck,  once  red  with  heroes'  blood, 

Where  knelt  the  vanquished  foe, 
When  winds  were  hurrying  o'er  the  flood, 

And  waves  were  white  below, 
No  more  shall  feel  the  victor's  tread, 

Or  know  the  conquered  knee ; 
The  harpies  of  the  shore  shall  pluck 

The  eagle  of  the  sea ! 

Oh,  better  that  her  shattered  hulk 

Should  sink  beneath  the  wave ; 
Her  thunders  shook  the  mighty  deep, 

And  there  should  be  her  grave : 
Nail  to  the  mast  her  holy  flag, 

Set  every  threadbare  sail, 
And  give  her  to  the  god  of  storms, 

The  lightning  and  the  gale! 


INDUCTION 


331 


I  shall  not  quote  the  preparation  and  presentation,  because 
too  long.  They  are  well  worked  out  and  excellent  in  treat- 
ment. Comparison  and  generalization  I  shall  quote  verbatim. 

"Comparison. — The  teacher  will  think  of  various  ex- 
amples in  history  with  which  to  compare  the  ideas  of  this 
poem.  This  study  may  be  more  or  less  extensive,  as  the  time 
and  occasion  may  require.  It  offers,  too,  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  the  correlation  of  history  and  literature.  A  com- 
parative study  of  the  Monitor  and  the  Oregon  has  already 
been  suggested.  Shortly  before  the  appearance  of  our  poem 
the  Admiralty  of  England  determined  to  cut  the  Victory,  a 
one-hundred-gun  ship,  down  to  seventy-four  guns.  The 
Victory  was  Lord  Nelson's  flag-ship  at  the  battle  of  Trafal- 
gar. When  the  order  was  published  the  people  raised  such 
an  outcry  against  it  that  the  proposed  measure  was  aban- 
doned. Other  studies  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  wide- 
awake teacher.  Children,  if  put  upon  the  right  track, 
delight  in  running  down  such  things. 

Generalization. — This  may  be  stated  as  the  proposition 
that  in  the  life  of  a  nation  noble  sentiment  is  a  vital  force." 

Now,  it  seems  the  clearest  thing  in  the  world  that  the 
intrinsic  function  of  the  poem  was  not  to  show  "that  in 
the  life  of  the  nation  noble  sentiment  is  a  vital  force."  The 
author  had  but  one,  that  an  intense  purpose  in  mind,  and 
that  was  to  save  the  ship.  The  generalization  quoted  is  a 
principle  that  is  sound  enough,  but  it  is  not  to  be  learned 
from  this  poem  if  any  semblance  to  the  purpose  of  the  author 
is  to  be  maintained. 

Illustration  from  Grammar. — A  further  illustration  may 
be  given  of  the  use  of  induction  as  applied  to  grammar. 
For  instance,  in  the  study  of  adjectives  we  may  presuppose 
that  the  thing  of  value  in  grammar  is  to  see  how  parts  of 
speech  help  us  to  express  our  ideas  more  definitely  and  easily. 


332  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Suppose  the  noun  has  already  been  described  as  a  word 
which  names  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Preparation. — A  review  of  the  noun  will  be  given  to 
bring  its  function  into  the  focus  of  attention.  The  children 
may  be  asked,  Why  are  we  studying  grammar?  The  answer 
will  be,  To  find  out  all  the  parts  of  speech  which  help  us  to 
express  ourselves  more  definitely.  Then  the  teacher  may 
say,  Today  we  are  to  study  a  new  part  of  speech  called  the 
adjective.  I  want  you  to  tell  me  how  it  helps  us  in  making 
our  speech  more  definite.  Here  is  a  sentence  with  which  we 
may  begin:  I  ivant  the  pupil  to  bring  me  the  book.  Then, 
turning  to  the  class,  he  may  say,  Do  this  for  me.  The  pupils 
will  feel  the  impossibility  of  doing  as  requested.  Well,  why 
don't  you  do  it?  the  teacher  may  ask.  The  class  will,  in 
substance,  answer  thus:  We  don't  know  who  is  to  do  it, 
nor  what  book  to  get.  The  teacher  will  add,  What  must  I 
do  to  this  sentence  before  you  can  do  what  I  want  you  to  do? 
Answer :  Add  some  more  words.  The  teacher  may  or  may 
not  say,  Those  words  zvill  be  our  lesson  for  today.  But,  in 
any  case,  the  problem  is  before  them.  They  see,  if  they  are 
to  get  his  meaning,  something  needs  to  be  done  to  make  it 
more  definite. 

Presentation. — In  the  presentation  step  the  particulars 
are  presented.  From  these  the  pupils  by  comparison  are  to 
get  at  the  general  truth.  To  that  end  stress  is  laid  by  the 
teacher  in  the  presentation  of  each  particular  upon  the 
clement  that  will  be  found  later  to  be  common  to  all. 

In  the  teaching  of  the  adjective,  the  lesson  may  proceed  as 
follows :  The  teacher  writes  upon  the  board, 

I  want  the  pupil  to  bring  me  the  red  book. 

Teacher — Can  you  do  it?  Ans. — No;  there  are  several 
^ed  books.  Teacher  adds  smallest.  Can  you  do  it  now? 


INDUCTION 


333 


Ans. — Yes.  An  afterthought — But  we  don't  know  zvho  is 
to  do  it.  Teacher  adds  curly-headed  to  pupil,  then  writes, 
blue-eyed,  curly-headed  pupil,  and,  finally,  tallest,  blue-eyed, 
curly-headed  pupil,  asking  after  each  one,  Can  you  do  it 
now?  We  will  suppose  that  as  the  sentence  stands,  viz.,  / 
want  the  tallest,  blue-eyed,  curly-headed  pupil  to  bring  me 
the  smallest,  red  book,  the  process  of  definition  has  gone 
far  enough  to  indicate  the  particular  child  and  the  particular 
book.  The  pupil  so  indicated  brings  the  book. 

Teacher — Why  couldn't  you  do  it  before?  Ans. — Not 
definite  enough.  Teacher — What  words  gave  definiteness? 
Ans. — Tallest,  blue-eyed,  etc.  Teacher — What  did  they 
make  definite?  Ans. — The  pupil  you  meant  and  the  book 
you  meant.  Teacher — Let  us  make  this  definite — What 
did  "tallest"  make  more  definite?  Ans. — "Pupil."  Teacher 
— What  did  "smallest"  make  more  definite?  Ans. — "Book," 
etc. 

Teacher — Let  us  take  another  illustration.  I  am  thinking 
of  a  dog.  Writes  on  the  board,  It  is  a  small  dog.  Do  you 
know  of  what  dog  I  am  thinking?  Ans. — No.  Teacher — 
What  is  zvrong  with  the  sentence?  Ans. — Not  definite 
enough.  Teacher — writes,  It  is  a  small,  fat  dog.  Do  you 
know  now?  Ans. — No.  Teacher — writes,  It  is  a  small,  fat, 
zvheesy  dog.  Do  you  know  yet?  Ans. — No.  Teacher — 
writes,  It  is  a  small,  fat,  wheezy,  one-eyed  dog.  Do  you 
know  now?  Johnnie  holds  up  his  hand.  Teacher — Well, 
Johnnie?  Johnnie — The  grocer's  dog.  Teacher — Right.  I 
saw  him  when  I  was  coming  to  school  today.  What  was 
wrong  zvith  the  first  statement?  Ans. — It  was  not  definite 
enough.  Teacher — How  did  I  make  it  definite?  etc.,  as  in 
the  former  example.  When  enough  of  these  have  been 
covered,  the  next  step  follows.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  this 
no  generalization  is  made.  The  children  only  see  that 


334  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

particular  names  are  made  more  definite  by  particular 
words. 

Comparison. — The  lesson  may  proceed  as  follows: 
Teacher — Name  all  the  words  that  were  added  to  make  the 
meaning  definite.  Ans. — The  children  give  the  list.  Teacher 
— What  did  they  make  more  definite?  Ans. — "Pupil," 
"book,"  "dog,"  etc.  Teacher — What  parts  of  speech  do  you 
call  the  words,  "pupil,"  "book,"  "dog,"  etc.  ?  Ans. — Nouns. 
Teacher — Now,  who  can  tell  me  what  part  of  speech  these 
words  make  more  definite?  The  next  answer  should  be  the 
generalization-.  The  last  question  stimulates  them  to  com- 
plete the  comparison. 

Generalization. — The  children's  answer  in  this  case  is, 
They  all  make  the  noun  more  definite.  Then  the  teacher 
may  give  the  name,  saying,  All  words  that  make  nouns 
more  definite  are  called  adjectives.  The  pupils  may  be 
called  upon  to  give  the  definition, — An  adjective  is  a  word 
that  makes  a  noun  more  definite  in  its  meaning. 

Application. — In  this  phase,  drill  and  application  take 
place,  subjects  to  be  discussed  later  in  Chapter  XXIII. 

In  the  lesson  on  adjectives,  drill  may  be  carried  on  as 
follows:  Teacher — What  part  of  speech  is  "tallest"?  Ans. — 
An  adjective.  Teacher — Why?  Ans. — Because  it  makes 
the  noun  "boy"  more  definite.  (This  is  an  example  of 
deduction.)  Teacher — What  part'  of  speech  is  "curly- 
headed"  ^  Ans. — An  adjective,  etc.,  etc.  The  teacher  might 
also  ask  the  pupils  to  memorize  the  definition  (a  good  prac- 
tice), and  perhaps  in  doing  so  might  require  them  to  write 
it  out. 

In  application,  the  teacher  may  ask  the  pupils  to  compose 
other  sentences  in  which  they  would  try  to  make  their 
meaning  exact  in  this  way.  He  may  also  have  them  collect 
cases  in  which  they  or  others  do  not  use  enough  adjectives, 


INDUCTION  335 

and  so  cause  people  to  misunderstand  them,  and  also  cases 
in  which  they  use  more  adjectives  than  are  necessary. 

NOTE. — The  pernicious  practice  of  asking  no  question  which  the 
pupils  cannot  at  once  answer  has  led  to  the  use  of  too  many  little 
questions  in  developmental  work.  It  is  not  profusion  of  questions 
but  artistic  economy  that  proclaims  a  good  teacher. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

Adams,  Illustration  and  Exposition  in  Teaching,  pp.  26-29, 
"145-166. 

Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  285-304. 

Creighton,  Introductory  Logic,  pp.  198-218. 

De  Garmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  43-64,  175-221. 

McMurry,  Method  of  Recitation,  pp.  74-117,  185-256. 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  pp. 
51-68.' 

Thorndike,  Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  154-160. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  examples  of  generalizations  you  have  ac- 
cepted, so  far  as  you  know,  on  mere  authority. 

2.  Give  five  examples  of  generalizations  that  you  have 
worked  out  largely  for  yourself. 

3.  Give  five  examples  of  generalizations  that  you  at 
first  accepted  on  authority,  but  later  verified  and  found  to 
be  correct 

4.  Give  five  examples  of  generalizations  that  you  had 
accepted  and  used,  but  upon  attempting  to  verify  had  to 
discard  as  incorrect. 

5.  Name  five  of  your  most  useful  practical  generaliza- 
tions, and  show  how  they  take  care  of  a  number  of  par- 
ticular cases. 


336  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

6.  Give  an  example  showing  how  you  unconsciously 
form  generalizations  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  first  quota- 
tion from  Adams. 

7.  Work  out  in  simple  form  presentation  examples  for 
the  teaching  of  the  following  generalizations : 

1.  It  pays  to  tell  the  truth. 

2.  The  square  of  a  binomial  equals  the  square  of 
the  first  term  plus  the  square  of  the  second  plus 
twice  the  product  of  the  first  and  second. 

3.  Amount  of  interest  =  principal  X  rate  X  time. 

4.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number. 

5.  If  you  dislike  people,  they  will  dislike  you. 

6.  Water  expands  when  it  freezes. 

7.  An  island  is  a  body  of  land  surrounded  by  water. 

8.  How  many  particular  cases  does  one  usually  examine 
before  forming  a  generalization  ? 

9.  How  many  must  one  examine  in  order  to  be  abso- 
lutely certain  ? 

10.  How    many    are    sufficient    in    order    to   be    certain 
enough  for  practical  purposes? 

11.  Give    an    example   of    where   you    made   a    wrong 
generalization  from  examining  too  few  cases. 

12.  In  the  above  cases  in  exercise  7,  would  it  not  be 
satisfactory  to   first   state  the  generalization  and   use  the 
particular   cases   you    collected   as    examples    for   verifica- 
tion of  the  rule  after  it  has  been  stated?    Why? 

13.  Would  it  be  satisfactory  to  generalize  from  one  of 
the  examples  and  use  the  others  as  illustrations  for  verifi- 
cation ?    Why  ? 


CHAPTER  XX 

DEDUCTION 

SECTION  i.    DEFINITION  AND  ANALYSIS 

Definition. — Deduction  is  the  process  by  which  particu- 
lars are  subsumed  under  classes.  In  deduction  we  label 
particular  events,  facts  or  situations  with  some  general  rule. 
I  meet  a  man  and  say,  "He  is  a  negro.  An  honest  man.  A 
fraud."  When  I  say  this  I  am  making  a  deduction,  for  I 
have  a  generalization  about  negroes,  honest  men,  and  frauds, 
and  I  place  this  individual  in  one  of  these  classes.  The  boy 
who  says,  "I  must  multiply  8  by  6  in  the  problem :  Find  the 
cost  of  6  Ibs.  of  raisins  at  8  cents  a  lb.,"  makes  a  deduction, 
because  he  says  this  is  not  a  case  of  adding  6  and  8  or  of 
dividing  6  by  8,  but  of  multiplying.  The  boy  who  sees  an 
angry  bull  charging  at  him  and  says,  "I  had  better  climb  this 
tree,"  is  using  deduction,  for  here  is  a  particular  situation 
which  is  capable  of  being  handled  by  a  rule  for  getting  out 
of  the  way.  A  doctor  who  says,  "This  is  a  case  of  typhoid," 
makes  use  of  this  process,  for  in  a  mass  of  symptoms  shown 
by  the  patient  he  sees  certain  things  which  lead  him  to  place 
the  case  in  the  typhoid  class. 

The  Value  of  Deduction. — To  have  keen  powers  of  de- 
duction is  a  great  advantage.  Of  these  advantages  the 
greatest  is  that  implied  in  the  definition.  If  one  has  ability 
to  say  what  each  particular  thing  is,  he  is  able  at  once  to 
fall  back  upon  his  stock  of  general  principles.  If  I  cannot 
say  whether  a  man  is  a  thief  or  an  honest  man,  T  do  not 
know  whether  or  not  to  trust  him.  If  I  happen  to  make  a 

337 


338  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

mistake  and  call  a  thief  an  honest  man,  I  am  likely  to  lose 
what  1  trust  to  him.  If  a  boy  with  disaster  rushing  at  him 
says,  "This  is  a  case  of  patting  the  animal  on  the  nose,"  he 
will  likewise  suffer.  If  the  doctor  diagnoses  typhoid  as 

r>pendicitis,  evil  results  accrue  to  the  patient. 
The   Work   of   Induction   and    Deduction. — Induction 

anufactures  rules,  deduction  applies  them  to  particular 
cases.  Induction  enables  me  to  find  out  what  nouns,  verbs, 
adjectives,  multiplication,  percentage,  commission,  laws  of 
climate,  and  rules  of  hygiene  are.  Deduction  enables  me 
to  label  each  situation  I  face  with  the  tag  belonging  to  the 
appropriate  rule. 

While  I  may  make  one  new  generalization  a  day,  I  apply 
those  already  made  to  a  thousand  particular  cases.  Hence, 
while  induction  is  important,  since  our  rules  need  to  be 
right,  deduction  is  used  much  more  frequently.  In  fact, 
there  comes  a  time  in  life  when  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
manufacture  new  general  rules  and  attitudes,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, new  sorts  of  situations  that  cannot  be  handled  by 
the  rules  made  twenty  years  ago  are  botched  by  "old-timers," 
who  are  called  "old  fogies,"  "back  numbers,"  and  other  such 
inelegant  names.  But  every  person  is,  in  handling  his 
actions  from  day  to  day,  pretty  much  at  the  mercy  of  the 
stock  of  rules  and  principles  he  has  on  hand,  particularly 
after  he  is  too  old  to  learn, — a  calamity  that  comes  to  some 
at  twenty,  to  most  at  forty,  and  to  a  few  choice  spirits  at 
seventy  or  later. 

Analysis  of  Deduction. — Logicians  usually  analyze  de-  I 
duction  into  three  phases, — general  principles,  a  particular  I 
case,  and  the  inference  which  places  or  subsumes  the  case  I 
under  its  appropriate  principle. 

The  formal  cases  are  usually  thrown  into  the  form  of 
the  syllogism;  as,  for  instance,  the  question  arises,  Is  Soc- 


DEDUCTION 


339 


rates  likely  to  die?  Now,  we  happen  to  know  that  all  men 
are  mortal.  This  is  a  principle  that  is  established  and  that 
we  always  rely  upon.  We  know  that  Socrates  is  a  man; 
the  conclusion  is  therefore  clear  that  he  must  die. 

Here  we  have  an  example  of  the  three  elements  in 
syllogistic  form.  We  want  to  know  in  particular  whether 
or  not  Socrates  will  die.  This  is,  presumably,  a  very  impor- 
tant particular  case.  I  may  be  wondering  about  placing  life 
insurance  upon  him,  or  I  may  be  his  greedy  and  ungracious 
heir.  But  in  any  case  I  want  to  know  what  to  do.  Now, 
I  have  a  great  mass  of  principles  that  I  believe,  depend 
upon,  and  upon  these  I  base  my  actions.  Inference  here 
steps  in  and  searches  for  an  appropriate  principle.  I  happen 
to  know  that  Socrates  is  a  philosopher,  but  that  inference 
leads  nowhere.  I  remember  that  connubial  dangers  lurk 
in  waiting  for  Socrates,  but  I  am  not  sure  that  he  will  not 
escape  those.  That  inference  leads  me  back  to  uncertainty. 
I  am  not  sure  that  such  infelicities  result  either  in  death  or 
longevity.  Finally,  inference  strikes  upon  this:  Socrates  is 
a  man,  and  I,  knowing  all  men  are  mortal,  now  know  that 
Socrates  must  die,  and  govern  my  actions  accordingly. 

Making  Inferences. — The  making  of  the  inference  is  the 
most  difficult  of  these  phases.  Numbers  of  general  prin- 
ciples, rules,  methods  of  control,  and  so  forth  belong  to  the 
equipment  of  everybody.  For  the  most  part,  these  are 
efficient,  although  the  slight  difference  between  an  educated 
and  an  uneducated  man  lies  in  very  considerable  part  in 
the  superiority  of  the  generalizations  of  the  former.  Par- 
ticular cases  confront  all  of  us  all  the  time.  But  inference 
which  searches  among  the  general  stock  and  finds  the  cap 
that  fits  the  complexion,  size,  and  style  of  the  particular 
case,  is  absolutely  invaluable  and  more  elusive. 

To  a  certain  extent,  inference,  or  searching  for  connec- 


340 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


tions,  can  be  carried  on  by  rules;  but  for  the  most  part,  as 
in  the  forming  of  hypotheses,  of  which  it  is  a  special  case, 
it  is  a  more  or  less  haphazard  thing  which  can  be  influenced 
by  experience,  by  training,  and  by  that  wide  scientific  train- 
ing which  stocks  the  mind  with  efficient  rules  for  handling 
cases.  The  man  who  is  an  expert  in  a  field  can  in  the  long 
run  be  counted  upon  to  make  more  correct  inferences  than 
one  not  an  expert.  James  spoke  wisely  when  he  said  that 
about  all  one  can  do  in  such  a  case  is  to  saturate  oneself  with 
all  the  facts  of  the  case,  hoping  thereby  that  the  inference 
will  spring  forth. 

It  is  possible  in  many  cases,  by  careful  examination  of 
the  facts,  to  narrow  the  search  for  inferences  by  collecting 
all  possible  cases  and  eliminating  them  one  by  one. 

Thorndike1  says  in  this  connection :  "They  are  easy  in 
proportion  as  the  number  of  possible  classes  under  which 
to  think  of  the  fact  in  question  are  known  and  are  few,  and 
in  proportion  as  the  consequences  of  being  in  each  of  such 
classes  are  known.  Thus  brevity  can  be  only  a  noun  or  not 
a  noun,  and  to  decide  that  it  is  not  a  noun  one  needs  only 
to  decide  that  it  is  a  noun  or  that  it  is  not  a  verb,  adjective, 
article,  etc.  How  to  translate  arma  in  Anna  virumque  cano 
Troice  qui  primus  db  oris,  etc.,  is  easy,  because  arma  can 
only  be  nominative,  accusative,  or  vocative  plural  of  armum, 
or  an  imperative  of  armare,  and  because  the  consequences 
of  being  nominative  plural,  being  vocative  plural,  etc.,  are 
well  known." 

SECTION  2.  DEDUCTION,  A  SPECIAL  FORM  OF  PROBLEM  AND  SOLUTION 
Problem. — Deduction,  like  induction,  is  a  special  form 

of  the  solution  of  a  problem.     In  deduction  the  problem  is 

to  make  inference.    We  do  not  make  deductions  at  random. 

There  is  always  some  thing  to  do,  some  problem  to  solve, 
1  Principles  of  Teaching,  p.  161. 


DEDUCTION  341 

some  need  to  satisfy.  Shall  I  say  "Have  went"  or  "Have 
gone"?  This  leads  to  deductive  reasoning,  for  I  recollect 
that  gone,  not  went,  is  the  past  participle,  and  that  settles 
my  question.  How  shall  I  make  the  children  more  ener- 
getic? I  refer  to  principles  of  heating  and  ventilation.  What 
is  the  amount  of  interest  on  this  note?  I  refer  to  rules  for 
computing  interest.  In  all  these  the  important  thing  is  that 
we  start  with  a  problem.  We  have  to  make  an  inference 
that  will  allow  us  to  go  about  our  business. 

Data. — The  data  are  the  particular  case  and  the  appro- 
priate principles.  These  are  both  given  in  explanatory 
deductions,  but  the  principles  alone  are  given  in  anticipatory 
deduction.  (These  terms  will  be  explained  in  the  next  sec- 
tion, and  until  then  the  explanatory  type  in  which  both  prin- 
ciples and  data  are  given  will  be  discussed.)  That  they  are 
given  is  evident  at  once.  In  the  sentence  Anna  virumque 
cano,  the  question  may  be  asked,  What  is  the  case  of  armaf 
Now,  the  particular  arma  in  its  setting  is  given  here  before 
me,  but  so,  also,  are  the  rules  of  Latin  grammar  given,  and 
found  in  my  head,  or  in  a  book,  from  which  I  can  probably 
transfer  them  to  my  head.  In  the  question,  What  kind  of 
flower  is  this?  I  have  given  the  specimen  in  my  hand  and 
the  classifications  of  botany  in  my  past  experience. 

Of  course,  if  the  principles  are  not  in  experience,  the 
process  stops  there  and  the  deduction  cannot  be  made.  I 
am  ignorant  and  helpless.  Hence  the  principles  must  be  in 
the  data. 

If  the  principles  are  not  among  the  data,  and  if  the  prob- 
lem is  a  pressing  one,  we  have  a  strong  motive  for  making 
inductions  or  of  searching  for  principles  that  will  be  ac- 
cepted on  authority.  If  I  really  wish  to  know  to  which 
class  the  flower  belongs,  and  do  not  know  the  necessary 
botanical  facts,  I  will  make  a  strenuous  effort  to  acquire  the 


342  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

knowledge.  If  a  doctor  has  a  case  before  him  and  does 
not  know  what  inference  to  make,  he  will  at  once  anxiously 
consult  his  authorities — unless  he  is  the  doctor  who  said, 
"I  am  uncertain  as  to  what  is  wrong  with  the  patient,  but 
if  we  can  throw  him  into  a  fit  I  am  great  on  fits."  In  such 
case  he  would  refer  all  cases  to  his  one  pet  set  of  methods  of 
treatment. 

Hypotheses. — The  inferences  made  are  the  hypotheses. 
They  are  the  guesses  which  are  made  in  the  attempt  to  solve 
the  problem.  This  flower  is  an  hepatica,  a  rose,  a  lily,  are 
each  guesses,  or,  in  this  case,  inferences.  The  patient  has 
malaria,  ague,  typhoid,  are  also  possible  inferences,  or 
hypotheses.  Arma  is  in  the  ablative,  the  nominative  singu- 
lar, or  the  nominative  plural,  are  also  inferences  and 
hypotheses. 

In  the  chapter  on  Induction  we  mentioned -references  in 
which  would  be  found  rules  for  assisting  in  forming 
hypotheses.  Deduction  also  has  its  rules  for  inferences, 
which  are  stated  by  Thorndike1  as  follows : 

"It  is  made  easier  (i)  by  systematizing  the  process  of 
search,  (2)  by  limiting  the  number  of  classes  amongst  which 
the  pupil  must  search  for  the  right  one,  (3)  by  informing 
him  of  classes  which  include  the  right  one  and  which  he 
would  neglect  if  undirected,  and  (4)  by  calling  his  attention 
to  the  consequences  of  membership  in  this  or  that  class. 
Thus  (i)  to  ask  a  pupil,  "What  word  does  arma  come  from? 
What  declension  is  it?  What  cases  can  it  be?"  makes  the 
inference  about  arma  easier  than  if  he  were  left  to  an  un- 
systematic trial  of  one  translation  after  another.  Thus  (2) 
the  question,  "What  will  probably  happen  to  Norfolk,  Vir- 
ginia, in  the  next  thirty  years?"  is  far  too  hard  for  eighth 
grade  pupils,  but  "Which  is  the  more  likely,  that  Norfolk 

1  Principle*  rf  Teaching,  pp.  163-4. 


DEDUCTION  343 

will  increase  its  commerce  or  lose  it?"  is  an    -ppropriate 
question.     Thus  (3)  the  task  of  the  pupil  who  is  trying  to 


B 


prove  as  an  original  proposition,  "If  one  straight  line  cuts 
another  straight  line,  the  opposite  angles  are  equal,"  is  made 
easier  if  he  is  told  to  think  of  all  the  angles  of  which  angle 
AOB  is  a  part  and  of  all  the  angles  of  which  angle  COD  is 
a  part.  (4)  Help  could  have  been  given  in  the  translation 
by  suggesting  that  arma  as  accusative  could  find  a  place  in 
the  sentence  as  the  object  of  cano;  in  the  geometry  original 
by  pointing  out  that  the  angle  BOC  is  equal  to  angle  AOD ; 
in  the  question  about  Norfolk  by  asking,  "What  sort  of 
harbor  has  Norfolk?  How  near  is  it  to  European  ports? 
To  the  wheat  fields  of  the  West?  To  the  coal  and  iron 
district  of  West  Virginia?"  etc. 

Verification. — The  verification  of  an  inference  is  exactly 
similar  to  the  general  case  of  verification.  If  it  works  when 
it  is  tried  on,  then  it  is  correct.  If  I  decide  that  the  flower 
is  an  hepatica,  and  if  it  answers  to  all  the  tests,  it  is  correct. 
If  the  doctor  decides  that  the  disease  is  typhoid,  and  if,  upon 
the  application  of  the  methods  of  handling  typhoid,  it  yields, 
he  is  satisfied  that  his  inference  was  correct.  If  the  decision 
that  anna  is  accusative  plural^  neuter,  makes  a  sensible 
translation,  the  student's  verification  is  satisfactory. 

SECTION  3.    TYPES  OF  DEDUCTIVE  LESSONS 

Bagley  makes  a  distinction  full  of  significance  for  teach- 
ing, between  what  he  calls  the  explanatory  type  and  tlie 


344 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


anticipatory  type  of  deductive  lessons.  The  essential  differ- 
ence between  these  two  is  this :  The  explanatory  type  ex- 
plains why  a  particular  case  is-  as  it  is  in  terms  of  principles 
and  rules ;  the  anticipatory  type  guesses  what  a  particular 
case  will  be  because  of  the  principles  and  rules  that  will  be 
involved  in  its  occurrence.  A  simple  illustration  will  make 
the  difference  clear.  The  question,  Will  rice  grow  in  Mis- 
souri ?  is  anticipatory,  because  the  conditions  of  temperature 
and  moisture  necessary  for  the  growing  of  rice  are  known, 
and  I  can  infer  or  forecast  the  kind  of  place  in  which  it 
will  grow.  If  such  places  are  found  in  Missouri,  then  rice 
will  grow  in  Missouri.  But  if  the  question  is  changed  to, 
Why  does  rice  grow  in  Louisiana?  I  have  the  explanatory 
type.  For  here  there  is  no  guess  about  its  occurrence,  since 
it  grows  there  now,  and  all  that  we  have  to  do  is  to  explain 
the  occurrence. 

Value  of  the  Anticipatory  Type. — A  moment's  con- 
sideration will  show  the  great  superiority  of  the  type  of 
mind  that  is  capable  of  this  anticipatory  reasoning.  People 
of  this  sort  are  the  ones  who  in  the  confidence  of  their 
scientific  knowledge  venture  upon  a  new  enterprise  and  trust 
its  successful  outcome  to  their  judgment.  The  Agricul- 
tural Department  at  Washington  is  doing  this  sort  of  thing 
all  the  time.  Its  agents  search  foreign  countries  with  a  fine- 
tooth  comb  for  commercially  .valuable  plants,  determine  the 
conditions  under  which  they  grow,  and  then  infer  the  locality 
in  this  country  in  which  they  would  be  successful.  And  in 
this  way  many  things  once  imported  are  now  grown  in 
abundance  at  home.  The  merchant  who  says,  This  is  a 
good  location  for  a  store ;  the  farmer  who  grows  a  new  kind 
of  crop;  the  real  estate  man  who  opens  a  new  addition; 
the  engineer  who  successfully  builds  a  bridge,  all  use  this 


DEDUCTION 


345 


type  if  they  have  not  depended  upon  chance.  The  inventor, 
the  progressive,  and  the  radical  think  in  this  way. 

It  is  an  easy  thing  to  explain  why  the  imported  seed  grows 
after  it  has  grown ;  why  the  merchant  chose  his  location 
wisely  after  it  has  proved  successful;  why  the  real  estate 
man  made  money,  after  it  has  been  made;  and  why  the 
bridge  stood  the  strain  after  it  has  been  tested.  It  is  easy 
for  other  people  to  copy,  once  the  new  anticipation  has  been 
realized.  But  it  is  original,  exhilarating,  and  superb  to  be 
able  to  forecast  what  will  happen  from  what  is  known. 
Every  great  advance  of  any  sort  was  born  as  a  correct  and, 
in  these  latter  days,  usually  as  a  scientific  guess. 

Another  reason  for  its  use  is  that  it  appeals  to  the  puzzle 
instinct.  Children  enjoy  guessing  at  what  will  happen,  and 
progressive  adults  do  not  differ  from  them  in  this  respect. 
Mere  guessing  should  be  discouraged,  but  inferring  or  judg- 
ing should  be  encouraged,  and  verification  will  winnow  the 
wild  from  the  wise  judgment. 

Examples  of  the  Explanatory  Type. — Bagley  has 
worked  out  one  example  of  each  so  well  that  I  shall  quote 
them  here.  This  terminology  differs  from  that  used  here, 
and  I  shall  take  the  liberty  of  modifying  it  into  conformity 
with  ours. 

Illustrating  the  explanatory  type,  he  says:1  "Geography 
again  furnishes  some  excellent  examples  of  this  type  of 
deductive  lesson.  Assuming  that  the  essential  conditions  of 
a  good  wheat  country,- a  good  corn  country,  a  good  cotton 
country,  etc.,  have  been  developed  by  a  careful  inductive 
study  of  types  in  the  United  States,  these  principles  may 
then  be  applied  to  the  explanation  of  wheat,  corn,  or  cotton 
belts  in  other  countries.  Thus  the  raising  of  wheat  in 

1  Educative  Process,  p.  313. 


346  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

European  Russia  is  a  fact  that  may  well  merit  a  develop- 
ment lesson  of  the  explanatory  type. 

Problem. — Wheat  is  grown  in  the  central  and  southern 
portions  of  European  Russia.  Let  us  see  why. 

Data. — What  conditions  have  we  found  to  be  essential 
to  a  good  wheat  country? 

Climate :  cool,  with  sufficient  but  not  too  much  moisture — • 
at  best,  thirty  to  forty  inches  annually,  with  even  distribu- 
tion. Hard  wheat  grows  only  in  cool  climates  with  fairly 
vigorous  winters. 

Soil :  fertile,  not  marshy,  not  exhausted.  Ground  fairly 
level,  for  convenience  in  harvesting. 

Other  conditions :  easy  transportation,  water  preferred  ; 
land  relatively  cheap,  population  not  dense. 

Inference. — Then  if  Russia  is  a  good  wheat  country,  it 
must  fulfill  these  conditions. 

Verification. — Let  us  see  if  this  is  true.  What  is  the 
climate  of  central  and  southern  Russia  ?  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  soil?  What  can  you  find  out  about  the  rainfall? 
What  means  for  water  transportation?  What  conditions 
would  render  land  relatively  cheap?  etc." 

Further  illustration  of  the  explanatory  type  is  not  neces- 
sary because  it  is  so  commonly  known  and  understood. 
For  wherever  the  question  Why  is  asked,  we  must  explain 
by  reference  to  principles  and  rules. 

Examples  of  the  Anticipatory  Type. — Because  of  the 
importance,  difficulty,  and  novelty  of  the  anticipatory  type, 
more  space  will  be  given  to  illustrating  it. 

Again  we  quote  from  Bagley,1  who  gives  a  lesson  whose 
problem  is  to  determine  deductively  what  the  climate  of  the 
Andes  Mountains  probably  is. 

"(1)    The  Data. — These  are  the  facts  with  which  we 

1  Educative  Process,  pp.  308-9. 


DEDUCTION  347 

start.  Taking  the  lesson  on  the  climate  of  the  Andes  region 
as  an  example,  it  is  clear  that  a  study  of  the  map  will 
reveal  certain  salient  facts  concerning  the  position  and 
extent  of  this  region  which  may  be  brought  out  by  ques- 
tioning: What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  Andes  system? 
Between  what  parallels  of  latitude?  What  zones  are  repre- 
sented in  this  extent?  W^here  is  the  highland  the  widest? 
Approximately  how  wide  at  this  point?  Where  narrowest? 
Compare  the  eastern  and  western  slopes.  Are  the  valleys 
high  or  low  ?  Narrow  or  broad  ?  What  do  we  term  a  high, 
broad  valley? 

Having  completed  this  preliminary  map  study,  the  next 
step  will  be  to  impress  other  data  that  are  essential  to  a 
study  of  the  climate.  The  altitude  of  the  principal  ridges 
and  plateaus  may  be  told  by  the  teacher  or  gathered  from 
text-books  or  sources.  Having  these  various  facts  in  mind, 
the  next  step  will  be  to  review  the — 

Principles. — What  four  general  conditions  govern  cli- 
mate? (Latitude,  altitude,  distance  from  the  sea,  prevailing 
winds.)  What  is  the  general  effect  of  latitude  upon  climate? 
Of  altitude?  In  what  ratio  does  increase  in  altitude  lower 
the  temperature?  (Approximately  3°  for  every  1,000  feet.) 
How  does  the  neighborhood  of  large  bodies  of  water  affect 
climate?  Under  what  conditions?  What  are  the  prevailing 
winds  in  the  equatorial  region  ?  How  do  they  vary  with  the 
seasons?  What  are  the  prevailing  winds  in  the  temperate 
zones  ?  How  do  they  vary  with  the  seasons  ? 

(2)  The  Inference. — According  to  latitude,  what  cli- 
matic zones  would  you  expect  to  find  in  this  region?  How 
will  altitude  affect  these  conclusions?  If  the  temperature 
at  the  sea  level  on  the  equator  is  98°,  what  will  be  the 
temperature  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet?  20,000  feet? 
5,000  feet?  How  high  are  the  plateaus  in  the  northern 


348  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Andes  ?  What,  then,  will  be  their  climate,  according  to  lati- 
tude and  altitude  ?  In  what  respect  will  the  prevailing  winds 
modify  the  temperature  of  this  region  ?  etc. 

The  temperature  of  the  central  and  southern  portions  of 
the  region  may  then  be  inferred  from  similar  data.  Rainfall 
will  probably  be  left  for  another  lesson,  but  it  may  be 
inferred  from  an  application  of  the  same  principles. 

(3)  The  Verification. — The  inferences  having  been 
placed  in  tabular  form  upon  the  blackboard,  the  pupils  may 
then  be  encouraged  to  go  to  the  text-books,  encyclopedias, 
and  other  sources  for  empirical  evidence  that  will  support 
or  controvert  the  conclusions.  In  some  cases  the  deductive 
inferences  may  be  found  not  to  tally  with  the  facts.  It  will 
then  be  necessary  to  search  out  the  causes  of  the  discrepan- 
cies. When  all  disputed  points  have  been  cleared  up,  the 
tabulated  inferences  may  be  modified  to  meet  the  facts,  and 
recorded  in  permanent  form  in  the  pupils'  note-books." 

De  Ganmo1  says :  "Literature  offers  a  good  field  for  the 
exercise  of  the  anticipatory  judgment,  since  it  is  supposed  to 
represent  events  and  results  not  so  much  as  they  are  or 
were  but  as  they  might  have  been  or  ought  to  be.  In  such 
matters  the  student  may  well  have  a  chance  to  try  his  inge- 
nuity and  his  ethical  insight.  Any  literary  work  offers 
opportunities  for  such  experiments,  either  by  supposing  a 
change  in  some  essential  part,  or  by  varying  the  time  and 
the  place  which  furnish  the  setting  for  the  piece,  or,  even 
without  any  such  change,  by  supposing  a  different  result  to 
follow  from  the  given  combination  of  circumstances.  What, 
for  example,  would  have  been  the  effect  on  the  outcome  of 
The  Merchant  of  Venice  had  Shylock  yielded  to  Portia's 
plea  for  mercy  and  had  bid  her  destroy  the  bond  ?  What,  if 
the  judge  had  condemned  him  to  death?  What,  if  the 

1  Principles  of  Secondary  Instruction,  Vol.  2,  pp.  127-8. 


DEDUCTION  349 

Prince  of  Morocco  had  chosen  the  right  casket?  Could 
Portia  have  extricated  herself  from  her  painful  position  as 
skilfully  as  she  did  Antonio  from  his?  Can  you  suggest  a 
better  plan  for  Bassanio  to  get  rid  of  his  debts  than  to 
marry  a  rich  wife?  What  would  the  modern  woman  have 
said  when  Bassanio  chose  the  leaden  casket?  In  short,  in 
literary  study  the  student  should  not  be  denied  the  use  of 
that  power  which  Hamlet  exercised  when  he  exclaimed, 
'Oh,  my  prophetic  soul,  my  uncle !'  " 

The  same  method  can  be  used  in  history.  A  student 
writes  of  a  lesson  recently  taught  as  follows : 

"A  class  studying  history  is  able  to  'predict'  events  from 
comparison  of  the  various  causal  conditions.  For  example, 
in  the  study  of  English  history  I  have  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  class  the  facts  of  the  numerous  inventions  fol- 
lowing 1760,  and  have  asked  what  effect  that  must,  of 
necessity,  have  had  upon  industry.  They  have  been  able 
to  see  that  it  must  have  had  the  effect  of  greatly  stimu- 
lating manufacturing.  Then  to  the  question  of  the  further 
influence  it  must  have  had  upon  population  and  methods  of 
living,  they  have  shown  that  manufacturing  would  draw 
people  to  towns,  which  would  most  likely  be  located  in  the 
regions  of  coal  and  iron.  And  still  a  further  result  that 
can  be  inferred,  provided  the  students  are  informed  about 
the  matter  of  representation  in  Parliament,  is  the  political 
effect  of  all  this  transfer  of  population  from  rural  life  to 
thickly  settled  cities  and  towns.  All  of  these  conclusions 
can  be  reached  by  the  students  in  response  to  some  ques- 
tioning by  the  teacher,  and  in  advance  of  any  reading." 

History  is  full  of  such  cases.  When  students  know  that 
prior  to  1756,  England  and  France  are  strong  rivals  in 
colonial  aggrandisement;  that  on  the  borders  are  wild,  half- 
savage  pioneers  whose  passions  are  with  difficulty  kept  in 


350  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

leash ;  that  England's  national  life  and  that  of  the  American 
colonists  is  more  robust;  that  the  strategic  points  for  hold- 
ing the  empire  claimed  are  Quebec,  Du  Quesne,  Montreal, 
and  Louisburg  in  America,  and  so  forth,  they  can  make  a 
pretty  accurate  guess  not  only  as  to  what  will  happen  but 
as  to  what  will  be  the  objective  points  in  the  campaign  and 
the  final  outcome. 

Composition  in  foreign  languages  is  of  the  anticipatory 
type.  The  sentence,  C&sar  pursued  the  enemy  beyond  the 
farthest  outposts  of  the  frontier,  when  being  translated, 
makes  the  pupil  take  the  anticipatory  attitude.  For  he  says 
in  effect,  what  will  be  the  Latin  form  for  Caesar,  for  pur- 
sued, etc.?  This  may  not  be  very  interesting  to  some  stu- 
dents, but  it  possesses  all  the  ear-marks  of  the  type. 

Invention  in  English  Composition  is  of  the  same  type. 
I  remember  a  simple  composition  exercise  that  created  a 
vivid  interest  in  a  seventh  grade  class,  which  ran  like  this: 
A  boy  was  going  past  the  home  of  a  very  crusty  old  man 
who  was  noted  for  his  antipathy  to  boys  and  who  had  a 
number  of  valuable  pigeons,  at  that  moment  perched  on  the 
roof  of  an  outbuilding  near  the  street.  The  boy  picked  up 
a  stone,  threw  it  at  the  flock,  and  hit  one  of  them,  which 
fell  off  on  the  ground.  The  boy  looked  startled,  started 
to  run,  thought  better  of  it,  walked  up  to  the  old  man's 
door,  and  knocked.  He  went  in,  in  a  few  minutes  came 
out,  and  went  off  down  the  street,  whistling,  with  the  pigeon 
in  his  hand.  Problem:  What  happened  in  the  house? 

In  Arithmetic,  among  other  forms  of  this  type,  pupils  may 
be  asked  to  make  up  practical  percentage  problems  in  con- 
nection with  their  own  home  activities.  This  may  be  varied 
for  all  the  operations  of  the  subject.  This  is  anticipatory 
in  type,  because,  knowing  the  principles  involved,  they  look 
for  particular  cases  to  which  they  apply. 


DEDUCTION  351 

SECTION  4.    RELATION  OF  INDUCTION  TO  DEDUCTION 

The  Two  Always  Together. — While  we  have  distin- 
guished induction  from  deduction  in  the  last  two  chapters, 
it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  every  act  of  thought 
both  are  present.  This  may  seem  to  be  either  impossible 
or  a  complete  annulment  of  much  that  has  been  asserted  in 
the  last  two  chapters.  But  an  illustration  will  make  the 
point  clear : 

A  voter  asserted  and  believed  that  an  honest  man  would 
be  efficient  in  public  office.  He  accordingly  voted  for  and 
helped  elect  William  Smith,  an  honest  man.  This  is  deduc- 
tion. Because  he  says,  in  effect: 

Honest  men  make  efficient  public  servants. 
William  Smith  is  honest. 

Therefore  he  will  be  an  efficient  public  servant. 
But  he  finds  that  the  office  is  mismanaged.  He  investigates 
Mr.  Smith's  administration  and  finds  that  while  he  is 
honest  he  is  not  shrewd,  and  so  was  deceived  by  dishonest 
but  cunning  politicians.  He  therefore  modifies  his  general 
principles — makes  a  modified  induction,  so  to  speak,  to  the 
effect  that  honest  and  intelligent  men  make  efficient  public 
servants.  Here  we  have  in  the  verifying  phase  of  the  deduc- 
tion the  formation  of  a  slightly  different  induction. 

Suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  his  nominee  has  proved  effi- 
cient; he  would  still  have  modified  his  generalization  by 
making  it  stronger,  since  when  applied  to  one  more  case  it 
still  held. 

A  boy  in  school  learns  to  write.  He  has  formed  certain 
habits  which  apply  to  a  particular  letter  every  time  he  is 
called  upon  to  make  it.  He  makes  the  letter  a  always  in 
the  same  way.  This  is  a  sort  of  deduction.  But  he  does 
not  make  it  in  exactly  the  same  way.  Perhaps  because  he 
changes  from  pencil  to  pen,  perhaps  because  he  uses  differ- 


352  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

ent  sorts  of  paper  at  different  times,  or  perhaps  because  of 
varying  rates  of  speed,  he  modifies  his.  way  of  making  the 
letter;  in  fact,  he  is  certain  to  do  so,  as  anyone  can  prove 
who  has  copies  of  the  handwriting  he  wrote  from  year  to 
year.  In  other  words,  constant  deductions  or  applications 
to  particular  cases  modify  his  general  method. 

When  the  theory  of  evolution  was  first  enunciated  it  was 
made  to  apply  to  biology.  Later  it  was  applied  to  history, 
sociology,  psychology,  religion,  education  —  all  cases  of 
deduction.  But  in  so  doing  the  nature  of  the  first  generali- 
zation was  materially  modified.  The  young  teacher  leaving 
the  training  school  has  a  system  of  principles  which  she 
applies  from  day  to  day  to  the  particular  problems  of  the 
school  room.  In  a  year  these  principles  have  been  modified 
and  changed  in  spirit,  content,  and  vitality  by  the  process  of 
application. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  I  make  the  induction :  amount 
of  interest  =  base,  rate,  time,  for  the  examination  of  several 
problems,  as : 

Interest  on  $100  for  2  yrs.  at  6%  =  $12.00 

Interest  on       75  for  4  yrs.  at  5%  =     I5-OO 

Interest  on     120  for  £  yr.     at  4%  =      2.40 

Interest  on      60  for  £  yr.    at  6%  =       1.20 

I  am  making  deductions  constantly.    The  answer  to  each  of 

these  problems  is  based  on  induction  —  that  we  have  to 

multiply,  reduce  percentage,  etc.,  in  each. 

Explicit  vs.  Implicit  Elements. — Consequently  when  we 
are  making  inductions  we  are  using  deduction,  and  when 
we  make  deductions  we  are  perfecting  induction.  The  only 
basis  upon  which  we  are  justified  in  saying  that  this  is  an 
inductive  lesson  and  this  a  deductive,  is  that  when  induc- 
tion is  explicit  and  deduction  implicit  it  is  an  inductive  les- 


DEDUCTION 


353 


son,  and  when  deduction  is  explicit  and  induction  implicit  we 
have  a  deductive  lesson.  For  it  depends  upon  what  is  in 
the  focus  of  attention.  If  we  are  thinking  about  getting  a 
rule  from  particulars  and  are  not  paying  attention  to  deduc- 
ing rules,  we  are  learning  an  inductive  lesson.  But  if  we 
are  thinking  about,  have  in  the  focus  of  attention  the  appli- 
cation of  a  rule  to  a  particular  case,  and  are  not  thinking 
of  the  effect  of  the  application  upon  the  rule,  we  have 
deduction. 

Thus  it  is  possible  to  say  that  induction  and  deduction  go 
on  at  the  same  time  and  still  be  able  to  say  this  is  a  deductive 
lesson  and  this  inductr.  J. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 
Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  305-315. 
Bolton,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  630-632. 
De  Garmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  122-149. 

Dewey,  How  We  Think,  pp.  74-100. 

Sutherland,  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  pp.  155-159 

Thorndike,  Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  160-164. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  examples  of  the  brightest  cases  of  practical 
deductions  of  which  you  know. 

2.  Throw  the  five   foregoing  examples  into  syllogistic 
form. 

3.  What  is  the  problem  in  induction?    In  deduction? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  in  one's  attitude  toward  the 
generalization  sought  in  induction  used  in  deduction? 

5.  Give  two  good  examples  of  narrowing  down  the  field 
of  deduction  from  three  to  four  to  one  inference  by  elimi- 
nating the  impossible. 


354  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

6.     How  are  the  explanatory  and  the  anticipatory  types 
illustrated  in  contrast  in 

a)  Latin  composition, 

b)  weather  reports, 

c)  life  insurance  tables, 

d)  in  arithmetic, 

e)  in  hygiene, 

f)  in  literature? 

Illustrate  in  each  case  by  particular  examples. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  UTILIZATION  OF  PAST  EXPERIENCE 

SECTION  i.     THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW 

Principle. — Each  new  method  of  control  is  composed  of 
elements  and  modifications  of  old  methods  of  control.  The 
new  method  is  a  reorganization  of  past  experience.  The 
act  of  skating  is  composed  of  several  actions  already  learned, 
such  as  balancing  and  stroking  out  with  one  foot,  then  the 
other.  Shooting  a  rifle  brings  about  co-ordinations  of  many 
muscles  which  have  been  previously  learned.  The  drunken 
sot  who  reforms  is  compelled  to  make  the  best  of  a  set  of 
inadequate  moral  habits,  and  can  never  hope  to  do  well  the 
things  he  wishes  to  do.  Multiplication  consists  of  addition 
plus  the  memory  of  certain  groups  of  figures.  Twenty- 
eight  times  27  consists  of  adding  27  eight  times  and  twice 
remembering  that  the  second  group  are  tens.  Aft  of  these 
were  known  before  they  were  combined.  This  principle 
takes  many  forms  in  educational  literature. 

Apperception. — The  most  commonly  used  form  of  the 
principle  is  called  apperception.  The  Herbartians,  who 
have  given  the  term  its  widest  currency,  use  it  chiefly  in 
connection  with  the  acquiring  of  new  ideas.  McMurry,1  for 
instance,  says:  "Appreciation  may  be  roughly  defined  at 
first  as  the  process  of  acquiring  new  ideas  by  the  aid  of  old 
ideas  already  in  the  mind."  Neglecting  a  faulty  psychology 
which  considers  the  new  ideas  as  something  external  to  the 

1  Elements  of  General  Method,  p.  257.    . 

355 


356  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

mind — as  strangers  before  a  city — and  s'.ating  the  concep- 
tion in  a  better  way,  Bagley1  says:  "The  'raw  materials'  of 
experience  are  the  elementary  processes  of  consciousness — 
'sensation  and  affection.  The  making  of  these  processes  in 
their  combinations  significant — the  reading  of  'meaning'  into 
ihem — is  technically  termed  'apperception.'  Sensations  that 
inform  of  the  environment  are  interpreted  not  according  to 
their  intrinsic  nature,  but  according  to  their  reference  to  the 
needs  of  the  organism." 

Everything  has  the  meaning  which  past  experience  puts 
into  it.  The  sentence :  Job's  wife  said,  "Curse  God,  and  die," 
means  to  the  reader  a  combination  of  meanings  of  indi- 
vidual words.  Each  word's  meaning  determines  in  part  the 
meaning  of  the  whole.  He  to  whom  the  meaning  of  God 
is  that  of  a  just,  all-powerful,  splendid  and  awful  individual, 
would  get  a  quite  different  meaning  of  the  whole  than  would 
one  who  thought  of  God  as  a  being  who  was  deposed  and 
reinstated  upon  the  whim  of  man. 

Children's  errors  in  the  use  of  words  are  a  perennial 
source  of  humor,  but  they  show  the  all-pervasiveness  of  the 
principle.  When  Johnnie  sings,  "The  consecrated  cross-eyed 
bear,"  when  Isaac  in  the  Ghetto  sings,  "We  shall  come  from 
Joisey  bringing  in  the  cheese,"  they  are  using  not  wisely  but 
well  the  principle  of  apperception — giving  significance  to 
words  out  of  the  fulness  of  their  experience.  Ideas  are 
gained  by  the  reorganization  of  what  is  in  experience 
already.  And  since  ideas  are  merely  symbols  for  methods 
of  control,  apperception  is  the  expression  of  the  principle 
laid  down  in  the  opening  sentence  of  the  chapter. 

Attitudes. — The  principle  may  be  illustrated  from  atti- 
tudes. People  of  a  certain  "set"  of  mind  see  events  in  the 
light  of  their  individual  biases.  The  occupational  bias  illus- 

1  Educative  Process,  pp.  81  and  82, 


UTILIZATION  OF  PAST  EXPERIENCE  357 

trates  this  well.  The  artist,  the  engineer,  and  the  geologist 
viewing  Niagara  Falls  give  it  a  quite  different  meaning 
because  their  attitudes  to  everything  in  life  are  different. 
The  artist  will  see  lines  and  colors,  the  engineers  will  dwell 
upon  horsepowers  and  turbines,  while  the  geologist  will 
think  in  terms  of  rocks  and  geologic  ages.  Temperamental 
attitudes,  such  as  the  emotional,  the  intellectual,  and  the 
motor,  produce  different  meanings.  One  of  each  type  may 
see  a  mutilated  animal  on  the  street.  To  the  emotional  the 
spectacle  is  one  of  sadness,  to  the  intellectual  it  is  one  of 
query  and  speculation,  and  to  the  motile  it  is  a  case  of  action. 
Each  reacts  according  to  his  habitual  mode  of  viewing  life. 

Necessity  for  Review. — Since  the  foregoing  is  true,  past 
experience  is  always  in  use,  both  in  school  and  out.  But 
there  are  certain  occasions  during  the  recitation  where  it 
is  necessary,  or  desirable,  for  the  teacher  to  have  an  explicit 
review  of  certain  facts  and  activities  that  the  pupils  have 
previously  experienced.  Frequently  it  is  not  necessary  for 
the  teacher  to  review  past  experience  with  the  class,  because 
it  will  come  up  of  its  own  accord.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
just  as  frequently  there  must  be  review.  This  is  necessary, 
because,  even  though  these  data  may  be  stored  away  some- 
where in  experience,  they  are  not,  simply  because  of  that 
fact,  absolutely  sure  to  be  recalled.  They  may  be  tucked 
away  in  some  outer  zone  of  attention,  and  the  appropriate 
association  may  be  lacking  to  recall  them  to  the  focus  of 
attention  when  they  are  needed.  They  need  to  be  recalled, 
revived  in  consciousness,  by  the  teacher  in  class. 

Relevant  Past  Experience. — It  might  seem  unnecessary 
to  state  that  the  past  experience  reviewed  by  the  teacher 
should  be  relevant  to  the  problem  under  consideration.  It  is 
a  matter  of  simple  economy  of  time  and  intellectual  effort 
to  confine  the  review  within  those  limits.  And  yet  teachers. 


358  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

through  neglect  or  the  desire  to  have  some  review  of  past 
experience  because  a  theory  calls  for  it,  often  fail  to  select 
facts  and  situations  for  review  which  have  any  logical  con- 
nection with  the  problem  in  hand. 

Two  illustrations  will  suffice.  A  teacher  who  conceived 
the  function  of  Crossing  the  Bar  to  be  "To  describe  a  desire 
for  a  peaceful  death"  (the  correctness  of  this  being  imma- 
terial, since  we  are  concerned  with  the  relevancy  of  his 
review  of  past  experience)  gave  the  following  questions 
in  review  of  the  pupils'  past  experience :  "Have  any  of  you 
ever  seen  a  harbor?  Describe  it.  Show  some  pictures  of  a 
harbor.  Describe  the  tides  at  the  coming  in  and  going  out 
of  a  ship."  This  was  the  whole  of  the  review.  To  be  sure, 
the  terms  "harbor"  and  "tide"  are  used  in  the  selection,  and 
to  that  extent  there  is  relevancy.  But  the  relevant  past 
experience,  as  determined  by  its  logical  connection  with  the 
essential  features  of  the  poem,  would  deal  with  ideas  about 
death,  or  a  review  of  Tennyson's  life,  showing  how  a  propos 
of  the  closing  scenes  and  emotions  of  his  life  the  poem  is. 
Again,  another  teacher  dealing  with  this  same  poem  did 
review  Tennyson's  life,  but  in  the  following  manner :  "When 
was  Tennyson  born?  When  did  he  die?  What  were  his 
chief  works?  What  other  of  his  poems  have  you  read?" 
Good  facts,  to  be  sure,  but  what  is  their  relevancy  to  this 
poem  any  more  than  to  any  other  of  his  poems?  How  do 
they  prepare  the  way  for  a  better  understanding  or  appre- 
ciation of  the  problem  he  was  trying  to  solve  ?  In  order  to 
make  this  review  valuable,  those  facts,  and  those  only,  which 
show  the  poem's  force  and  naturalness,  should  be  reviewed. 

SECTION  2.    REVIEW  FOR  MOTIVE 

Motive  Found  by  Reviews. — One  reason  for  a  review 
of  past  experiences  is  to  secure  a  motive  for  the  study  of  the 


UTILIZATION  OF  PAST  EXPERIENCE  359 

lesson  in  hand.  Sometimes  immediate  interest  supplies  the 
motive,  without  the  necessity  for  any  review.  For  instance, 
in  the  study  of  poems  the  teacher  under  some  circumstances 
can  secure  the  motive  by  the  mere  question,  "What  is  the 
problem  the  author  is  discussing  here?"  But  under  other 
conditions  a  review  of  past  experience  is  necessary.  For  if 
subject-matter  provides  the  means  for  the  control  of  values, 
generic  or  specific,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  values  to 
be  controlled  have  not  been  in  the  focus  of  the  children's 
attention  for  some  time,  and  hence  may  not  be  appreciated 
as  highly  as  they  otherwise  might.  Then  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  bring  them  in  and  to  create  the  conscious  lack  of 
control. 

Illustrations. — For  instance,  in  teaching  the  rule  for 
divisibility  by  three  for  the  sake  of  speed  in  computing,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  give  the  children  a  series  of  problems 
in  which  they  zc'orfc  for  speed.  Then  the  teacher  leads  them 
to  see  that  they  are  not  sufficiently  speedy.  The  rule  then 
follows. 

Or,  again,  in  the  situation  cited  above,  the  study  of 
Crossing  the  Bar,  if  immediate  interest  is  not  sufficient,  a 
review  of  the  author's  life,  showing  his  personal  character- 
istics pertinent  to  the  setting  of  the  poem,  may  be  made,  and 
the  question  put,  "How  do  you  think  such  a  man  would  view 
death?"  Or,  students  old  enough  to  have  had  thoughts 
about  death  may  be  questioned  as  to  their  opinion  upon 
the  subject,  and  then  the  statement  may  be  made,  "In  the 
poem  to  be  studied,  Tennyson  tells  what  he  thinks  death 
will  be  like." 

Again,  in  American  history,  if  the  value  to  be  controlled 
be  to  see  how  a  strong  centralized  government  grew  out  of 
the  needs  of  strong  local  governments,  it  may  be  necessary 
in  beginning  each  lesson  to  go  back  to  this  value  and  to 


360  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

have  it  restated  so  that  it  may  be  kept  clearly  in  mind.  The 
condition  in  which  the  problem  was  left  at  the  last  lesson, 
the  new  factors  entering  in  at  this  lesson,  and  the  new 
form  which  the  problem  takes  because  of  these,  may  need  to 
be  reviewed  in  order  to  make  the  motive  for  studying  this 
lesson  as  active  as  possible. 

SECTION  3.    REVIEW  AS  AN  AID  IN  SOLUTION 

It  is  necessary,  also,  to  review  past  experience  in  order 
to  bring  to  mind  data  that  are  essential  for  the  solution 
of  the  problem  raised  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson.  For 
here  again  the  data  may  be  forgotten,  or  may  never  have 
been  known.  In  this  the  teacher  may  save  the  pupils  much 
loss  of  time  by  explicitly  bringing  the  needed  data  into 
the  focus  and  thus  obviate  the  necessity  of  searching  for 
them. 

In  this  connection  two  remarks  are  necessary.  In  the 
first  place  this  searching  is  good  exercise  for  pupils  under 
some  circumstances.  When  the  material  may  be  recalled 
by  the  vigorous  use  of  memory,  the  teacher  who  assists  the 
pupils  to  recall  it  is  taking  away  from  them  a  much  needed 
means  of  growth.  Such  efforts  at  recall  make  for  self- 
reliance  and  strength.  Or,  if  the  material  may  be  found  in 
books  easily,  the  children  should  be  required  to  find  it.  In 
the  second  place,  it  is  a  mistake  to  develop  too  much  intro- 
ductory material  in  any  lesson.  That  is  to  say,  the  solution 
of  the  new  problem  should  be  near  enough  to  the  past 
experience  of  the  child  to  make  unnecessary  the  introduction 
of  much  new  data.  Long  introductions  tire  the  pupil  before 
he  comes  to  the  real  work.  For  instance,  the  phrasing  of 
grammatical  rules  should  not  require  the  development  of 
many  words  which  are  foreign  to  the  pupil's  vocabulary. 
If  the  rule  must  be  stated  in  these  words,  it  should  not  be 


UTILIZATION  OF  PAST  EXPERIENCE  361 

taught  until  the  pupils  have  sufficient  breadth  of  scholar- 
ship to  have  met  the  words  in  other  connections. 

Illustrations. — A  few  examples  will  indicate  some  situa- 
tions in  which  this  review  is  advantageous.  In  the  problem, 
How  large  will  we  have  to  make  a  bin  in  order  to  hold  a 
ton  of  coal?  it  may  be  necessary  to  review  the  relation  of 
pounds  to  volume  in  connection  with  coal.  If  the  pupils  ought 
to  know  it,  or  if  they  can  easily  find  it  for  themselves  in 
their  arithmetic,  this  will  not  be  advisable.  In  solving  the 
fodder  problems  given  earlier,  the  teacher  may  find  it  neces- 
sary to  make  an  explanation  of  the  devices  used  in  the 
tables  for  tabulating  the  information.  In  the  study  of  litera- 
ture the  teacher  often  finds  it  necessary  to  recall  the  mean- 
ings of  words  which  have  been  previously  studied.  The 
cases  where  such  reviews  are  advisable  are  multitudinous  in 
the  course  of  every  day's  work. 

SECTION  4.    REVIEW  FOR  FUNCTIONAL  CONNECTION 

In  Chapter  XXIII  the  question  of  application  will  be  dis- 
cussed. Without  anticipating  this  later  discussion,  the  fol- 
lowing statement  will  set  the  problem  of  this  section  more 
clearly -before;  us.  When  the  solution  of  the  problem  has 
been  reached  it  is  advisable  to  apply  it  to  other  problems  of 
the  same  type.  This  is  true  because  each  solution  is  an 
instrument  created  for  a  specific  purpose  but  usable  in  cer- 
tain other  situations.  The  more  varied  the  uses  to  which  it 
is  put,  the  better  will  be  the  grasp  upon  it. 

Now  its  use  or  purpose  may  be  exemplified  in  two  places, 
either  when  the  problem  is  raised  or  when  the  solution  has 
been  reached.  For  instance,  it  has  been  said  repeatedly  that 
one  way  of  securing  a  motive  is  to  create  a  breakdown  in 
control,  for  then  the  pupils  will  see  the  purpose  of  the  lesson 
to  be  studied.  At  that  point  functional  connection  is  made 


362  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

with  past  experience.  But  frequently  the  teacher  is  able  to 
secure  the  motive  by  an  appeal  to  immediate  interest,  and 
then  functional  connection  may  not  be  made  at  the  outset. 
In  this  case  the  method  of  control  worked  out  may  still  be 
used  in  other  situations  after  it  has  been  learned.  Indeed, 
even  when  the  functional  connection  is  made  at  the  outset, 
other  applications  may  be  made  later.  But  in  every  case  this 
connection  serves  as  a  means  for  recalling  past  experience, 
and  in  so  far  as  the  teacher  intends  it  to  be  for  that  purpose 
it  is  germane  to  the  discussion  of  this  chapter. 

Illustrations. — Whether  the  pupils  learn  the  rule  for 
divisibility  by  three  because  they  feel  the  need  of  speed  for 
controlling  certain  generic  values  or  because  of  immediate 
interest,  in  either  case,  after  the  rule  has  been  learned,  it 
serves  as  a  means  for  reviewing  past  experience  when  it  is 
applied  to  work  which  the  children  have  already  been  doing 
by  the  slower  method.  Again,  if  the  Psalm  of  Life  is  studied 
because  of  immediate  interest,  the  ideas  the  pupils  have  had 
previously  may  be  called  up  when  applications  are  made. 
In  studying  physics,  even  when  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  provide  a  motive  for  study  other  than  those  used  in  con- 
nections with  all  subjects,  after  any  principle  has  been 
studied,  frequent  and  wide  application  may  be  made  to  prob- 
lems that  lie  within  the  everyday  experience  of  the  students. 
Similarly,  in  the  study  of  history,  even  when  no  attempt  is 
made  to  strengthen  the  motive,  application  of  the  principles 
discovered  will  serve  as  a  means  for  calling  up  past 
experience. 

SECTION  5.    REVIEW  OF  THE  PREVIOUS  LESSON 

Under  some  circumstances  the  teacher  may  feel  the  need 
for  reviewing,  the  previous  day's  lesson  before  beginning 
the  new  lesson.  This  is  done  wherever  drill  is  necessary 


UTILIZATION  OF  PAST  EXPERIENCE  363 

in  order  to  fix  the  facts  in  mind.  It  is  also  done  when  the 
new  lesson  grows  out  of  the  old  lesson.  Such  review  is 
probably  not  necessary  when  short  poems  in  literature  are 
being  studied,  and  when  in  such  case  the  poems  are  not 
studied  for  the  facts  they  contain.  Each  poem  being  an 
isolated  unit,  it  may  have  no  functional  connection  with 
succeeding  units.  Likewise,  it  will  not  be  necessary  when 
pupils  are  drilled  for  a  number  of  days  in  an  arithmetical 
process.  For  each  succeeding  day  continues  the  drill,  and 
the  whole  "new"  lesson  is  a  review  of  the  previous  day's 
lesson. 

The  Time  for  Review. — A  simple  matter  of  mechanics 
is  involved  in  answering  this  question.  Should  the  reviews 
of  past  experience  be  at  the  beginning,  the  end,  or  the 
middle  of  the  recitation?  To  facilitate  the  discussion  the 
reader  is  asked  to  glance  at  Chapter  XIX  and  to  observe 
that  the  recitation  may  be  divided  into  Preparation,  Develop- 
ment, and  Application.  Now,  review  for  the  sake  of  motive 
must,  of  course,  occur  in  the  Preparation.  The  review  of 
the  previous  day's  lesson  usually  occurs  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  Preparation.  Review  for  functional  connection 
occurs  usually  in  the  Application,  but  may  occur  in  the  De- 
velopment. Review  for  assistance  in  solution  is  sometimes 
put  in  the  Preparation,  sometimes  at  the  beginning  of  De- 
velopment as  an  introductory  step,  and  sometimes  is  intro- 
duced wherever  it  is  needed  in  the  Development.  It  seems 
advisable  to  exclude  it  from  the  Preparation.  But  where 
in  the  Development  it  should  be  placed  is  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual preference.  Some  teachers  prefer  to  clear  the  ground 
before  beginning  the  solution;  others  claim  that  this  pro- 
cedure gives  too  much  preliminary  assistance  and  indicates 
too  obviously  the  direction  which  attempts  at  solution  should 
take.  The  experienced  teacher  who  has  a  mastery  of  the 


364  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

technique  of  teaching  depends  largely  upon  his  feeling  of 
the  fitness  of  the  time  and  place. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  83-94. 
Bolton,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  520-4,  529-551. 
McMurry,  Method  of  Recitation,  pp.  255-297. 
Thorndike,  Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  42-50. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  humorous  examples  of  faulty  apperception. 

2.  Give  five  examples  of  particularly  clever  appercep- 
tion from  your  own  experience  or  reading. 

3.  Show  how  one's  attitude  toward  an  object  of  investi- 
gation determines  in  great  part  what  one  sees  in  it. 

4.  Give  ten  good  examples  of  review  for  motive,  using 
school  work  as  far  as  possible. 

5.  Give  five  examples  of  faulty  review. 

6.  Show  how  you  would  improve  them. 

7.  Should  such  reviews  be  long  or  short?    Why? 

8.  Give  five  examples  of  where  it  was  necessary  to  re- 
view some  points  in  order  to  finish  a  solution. 

9.  Should  all  this  review  come  in  at  the  very  outset 
or  as  needed?     Illustrate. 

10.     What  is  meant  by  "review  for  functional  connec- 
tion"?   Illustrate  it.    Is  it  a  practical  thing?    Why? 


CHAPTER   XXII 

METHODS  OF  SECURING  BEALNESS 

If  we  were  able  to  follow  the  child  in  toto  and  solve  only 
those  problems  for  him  which  arise  without  our  manipula- 
tion, there  would  be  little  need  for  trying  to  make  situations 
real.  But  in  the  ordinary  course  of  school  work,  with  sub- 
ject-matter to  be  presented  to  the  pupils,  very  frequently 
great  care  has  to  be  taken  to  assure  the  realness  of  the 
problems  which  are  to  be  attacked  and  of  the  solutions 
which  are  to  be  arrived  at.  Under  these  conditions  some 
discussion  of  the  methods  by  which  realness  and  vividness 
may  be  given  to  the  subject-matter  is  in  place. 

Too  much  covered. — It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general 
proposition  that  too  much  work  is  covered  in  most  courses 
in  school.  This  does  not  mean  that  children  are  overworked, 
but  refers  to  the  fact  that  school  work  is  not  sufficiently 
intensive.  For  instance,  in  English  History,  if,  instead  of 
covering  all  the  history  in  skeleton  form,  a  few  epochs  were 
studied  intensively  and  the  intervening  periods  omitted,  the 
students  would  be  better  prepared  to  participate  in  modern 
life. 

Unless  this  is  done,  the  skeletonized  accounts  in  history 
and  the  abstract  processes  in  other  subjects  have  little  mean- 
ing and  little  bearing  upon  practical  conduct.  The  criticisms 
of  business  men  upon  the  mathematical  inability  of  gradu- 
ates of  the  public  schools  is  in  large  part  due  to  the  fact 

365 


366  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

that  school  processes  are  gone  over  so  rapidly  that  they  are 
not  built  up  vitally  in  the  minds  of  the  children. 

Type  lessons. — One  method  of  securing  this  richness  of 
detail  is  the  type  lesson  in  which  one  typical  case  of  a  large 
group  is  worked  out  in  detail  as  a  basis  for  the  understand- 
ing of  all.  McMurry  has  worked  this  out  in  excellent  form, 
references  to  which  are  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

Problems. — One  method  very  frequently  discussed  is 
that  of  making  the  problem  solved  by  the  subject-matter  the 
problem  of  the  pupils.  It  requires  the  teacher  to  search  the 
experience  of  the  child  to  find  things  of  value  in  the  control 

of  which  a  breakdown  can  be  made  to  occur,  such  that  the 

/  ' 

subject-matter  will  appear  as  the  remedy.  This  does  not 
require  further  elaboration  at  this  point. 

Imagination. — Of  the  other  aids  to  realness  imagina- 
tion and  comparison  are  chief  in  importance.  (In  treating 
imagination  no  function  of  the  image  except  that  of  making 
situations  more  real  and  vivid  will  be  discussed.) 

The  average  man  does  better  and  more  intelligent  work, 
and  has  clearer  and  more  intelligent  opinions  upon  his  own 
work  than  upon  that  of  any  other  individual.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  in  his  own  case  he  has  the  facts,  the  ideas, 
feelings,  etc.,  with  all  their  associations,  at  first  hand,  and 
easily  within  his  observation ;  while  in  thinking  upon  the 
plans  and  work  of  other  people  he  has  to  build  up  in  imagina- 
tion the  situation  which  their  work  is  supposed  to  involve. 

It  is  also  generally  conceded  that  any  one  can  do  intelli- 
gent work  in  other  than  his  own  actual  conditions  in  pro- 
portion to  the  truth,  clearness,  and  vividness  with  which  he 
can  build  up  these  other  conditions,  in  his  imagination.  The 
Englishman  can  give  better  advice  to  another  Englishman 
than  to  a  Chinaman.  A  man  is  better  able  to  understand 
other  men  than  he  is  to  understand  women.  And  this  for 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  REALNESS  367 

the  reason  that  he  can  put  himself  into  the  exact  situation 
of  the  person  to  be  understood  in  the  one  case  better  than 
in  the  other. 

In  school  the  child  is  sometimes  by  necessity  removed  from 
the  actual  situations  which  he  studies.  It  is  impossible  for 
him  to  live  in  Athens  with  Pericles  or  in  Rome  with  Au- 
gustus Caesar.  In  studying  arithmetic  he  cannot  be  the 
grocer,  or  the  banker.  In  literature  he  cannot  be  Macbeth 
or  Hamlet.  Because  he  is  removed  from  the  real  situation 
he  cannot  do  as  intelligent  work  as  if  the  conditions  were 
actual.  And  hence  the  immense  importance  of  making  the 
situations  which  he  studies,  be  they  historical,  arithmetical, 
or  literary  as  real  as  possible  through  imagination. 

And,  indeed,  the  child  is  more  capable  of  such  imaginative 
work  than  is  the  adult.  He  is  just  emerging  in  the  grades 
from  the  world  in  which  he  actually  has  to  learn  to  distin- 
guish the  real  from  the  imaginary,  and  without  great  effort 
he  can  be  led  to  reconstruct  the  historical  situation  with  a 
good  deal  of  vividness  and  more  or  less  correctness.  In 
arithmetic,  it  is  not  hard  for  him  to  imagine  himself  to  be 
a  banker  charging  interest  and  floating  stock  companies, 
providing  the  teacher  does  his  part  in  supplying  inspiration 
and  aids. 

The  aids  which  the  teacher  has  at  hand  to  assist  are  of 
four  sorts.  First,  there  is  comparison  of  the  imagined  situa- 
tion with  the  pupil's  own  experiences,  secured  by  first  of  all 
advising  the  pupils  to  imagine  themselves  to  be  in  the 
situation,  and  then  describing  it  by  similarity  and  contrast 
with  that  with  which  the  teacher  knows  the  children  are 
familiar. 

Second,  there  are  material  models,  specimens,  etc.  In 
illustrating  history  we  may  have  the  actual  instruments  and 
clothing  used  by  the  people.  We  may  have  specimens  of 


368  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

work  that  they  did  and  of  the  things  that  they  built.  When 
we  cannot  have  these,  we  may  have  models  of  them,  models 
of  Grecian  houses,  models  of  fortifications,  etc.  The  sand 
table,  well  utilized,  is  one  of  the  best  instruments  at  the 
teacher's  disposal  (in  some  cases  even  as  high  as  the  eighth 
grade)  for  making  the  situation  real. 

Third,  he  may  utilize  pictures,  diagrams,  maps,  and  black- 
boards. Pictures  are  of  great  service  in  geography;  dia- 
grams may  be  used  to  advantage  in  arithmetic.  It  is  im- 
possible to  teach  campaigns  in  history  without  the  use  of 
maps.  (The  use  of  the  blackboard  is  reserved  for  a  sepa- 
rate treatment.)  These  all  in  their  way  tend  to  make  the 
situation  real.  Indeed,  pictures  and  models  are  often  bet- 
ter than  the  actual  situation  because  they  center  the  attention 
upon  the  important  points,  while  in  the  actual  situation  the 
attention  may  not  be  so  centered. 

Fourth,  another  aid  to  the  teacher  is  dramatization.  This 
is  probably  the  greatest  aid  to  the  imagination.  Pictures 
assist  somewhat,  maps  assist  in  their  degree,  specimens  are 
useful,  models  give  contour,  but  dramatization  gives  all  these 
and  more.  These  other  aids  lack  action.  They  are  dead. 
The  imagination  has  to  make  them  live.  Dramatizing  a 
banking  house,  a  grocery  store,  William  Penn  and  the  In- 
dians, gives  life  and  force  to  what  knowledge  the  pupil 
has.  Dramatization  assists  the  imagination  most  effectively 
and  forms  a  better  skeleton  around  which  the  imagination 
may  put  the  flesh  of  real  life. 

Dramatization. — The  advantages  of  dramatization  are, 
first,  as  just  said,  that  it  makes  the  situation  very  real,  and 
second,  that  it  gets  the  child  into  the  habit  of  seeing  things 
vividly,  so  that  the  imagination  has  through  it  a  high  stand- 
ard set  which  it  will  in  the  absence  of  dramatization  seek 
to  reach.  That  is  to  say,  if  in  early  life  the  child  has  dram- 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  REALNESS  369 

atized  much  he  will  get  into  the  habit  of  imagining  things 
clearly,  and  in  the  higher  grades,  in  the  high  school  and  in 
later  life,  when  a  situation  is  put  before  him  meagerly  with- 
out the  vivid  dramatic  element  present,  his  imagination  will 
have  a  tendency  not  to  rest  content,  not  to  feel  comfortable, 
until  the  situation  has  been  brought  up  to  the  high  standard 
of  reality  to  which  it  has  been  accustomed. 

There  is  always  a  question  for  the  teacher  as  to  the 
amount  of  dramatization  that  ought  to  be  used  in  the 
school.  Part  of  the  question  can  be  eliminated  if  we  re- 
member that  the  chief  reason  for  the  use  of  dramatization 
is  its  capacity  for  making  a  situation  real.  Dramatization, 
as  mere  dramatization,  ought  to  occupy  a  very  small  space 
in  school  life.  Therefore,  unless  it  is  brought  into  line 
with  the  problems  of  the  lesson  and  used  as  an  aid  in  making 
them  real,  it  should  be  rigidly  excluded.  In  the  case  of 
valuable  dramatization  the 'question  remains  as  to  how  much 
there  should  be  in  the  first  grade,  and  how  much  should  be 
in  the  eighth  grade.  The  only  light  that  can  be  thrown 
upon  the  question  conies  from  the  fact  that  in  the  recitation 
the  child  is  trying  to  do  something,  and  that  dramatization 
will  assist  his  imagination  to  make  it  more  real.  Therefore, 
where  the  subject-matter  needs  many  aids  to  make  it  con- 
crete, or  where  the  child  is  better  able  to  deal  with  concrete 
as  over  against  abstract  situations,  the  dramatization  should 
be  used  to  the  greatest  extent.  Seemingly  it  is  most  at  home 
in  the  earliest  grades,  for  the  child  is  living  in  the  world  of 
imagination;  he  thinks  concretely  and  thinks  naturally  in 
dramatic  form.  But  in  the  eighth  grade,  after  a  long  course 
of  training  in  taking  symbols  and  making  them  real  by 
means  of  the  aids  already  mentioned,  he  ought  to  be  able  to 
get  along  with  less  dramatization,  with  less  verbal  descrip- 
tion than  in  the  earlier  grades.  If  he  is  able  to  realize  the 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

situation  without  the  aid  of  any  of  these  props  it  is  better 
for  him  to  do  so,  and  if  he  can  do  it,  it  indicates  that  his 
imagination  has  grown  strong  and  effective. 

Blackboards. — A  separate  chapter  might  be  devoted  to 
the  use  of  the  blackboard  in  making  situations  real.  It 
seems  almost  as  though  student  teachers  were  afraid  that 
the  blackboard  might  be  worn  out  or  that  chalk  was  expen- 
sive. Because  of  their  recognized  value,  blackboards  are 
put  in  at  great  expense  by  school  boards  and  given  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  recitation  room  often  to  be  little  utilized 
by  the  teacher.  If  a  word  is  not  correctly  pronounced  or  if 
a  new  word  is  met,  does  the  student  teacher  write  it  on  the 
board?  Rarely.  If  a  sentence  in  history  needs  explanation 
and  could  be  explained  by  a  diagram  of  three  lines  on  the 
board,  would  the  inexperienced  teacher  use  it?  Rarely.  He 
prefers  to  spend  a  minute  trying  to  give  a  hazy  idea  and 
even  then  probably  fails.  If  a  difficult  lesson  is  to  be  de- 
veloped does  the  young  teacher  put  the  main  topics  on  the 
board  to  assist  in  the  summary?  Seldom.  One  would  think 
that  the  board  would  be  used  a  great  deal  in  geography,  but 
it  is  not. 

This  is  an  extreme  statement.  Conditions  are  not  quite  so 
bad  as  this;  but  they  are  bad.  When  one  thinks  of  the  in- 
creased ease  with  which  so  many  pupils  see  relations ;  of  the 
value  our  outlines  are  to  ourselves,  of  the  fact  that  many 
people  think  best  when  they  see  what  they  are  thinking 
about,  it  makes  him  wonder  why  the  blackboard  is  so  little 
used. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  that  the  blackboard  should  show 
at  the  end  of  the  lesson  an  epitome  of  all  that  has  been 
developed  in  the  recitation.  This  is  extreme,  and  cannot 
always  be  done,  especially  in  such  subjects  as  drawing,  man- 
ual training,  music,  and,  perhaps,  reading.  And  it  need  not 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  REALNESS  371 

always  be  true  in  the  case  of  geography,  history,  or  arith- 
metic. The  end  is  not  the  utilization  of  the  blackboard,  but 
the  making  of  the  subject-matter  clear  and  real,  and  if  this 
can  be  secured  most  economically  without  the  blackboard 
there  is  no  reason  for  using  it.  But  the  lessons  in  which 
facts  are  to  be  collected  and  organized  are  few  in  number 
where  the  points  should  not  be  written  on  the  board  as  they 
are  made,  or  before  the  end  of  the  lesson.  And,  moreover, 
there  are  very  few  lessons  of  any  sort  which  cannot  be 
gotten  under  better  control  by  the  children  through  the  lib- 
eral use  of  this  instrument. 

Experience. — It  has  been  constantly  implied  and  should 
now  be  definitely  stated  that  the  material  upon  which  these 
instruments  are  used  is  the  past  experience.  In  dramatiza- 
tion, and  in  the  use  of  pictures,  models  and  specimens,  the 
thing  that  is  being  operated  upon  is  the  past  experience  of 
the  child.  If  I  speak  in  a  farming  community  I  use  one 
sort  of  instrument  appealing  to  the  past  experience  of  that 
group ;  with  city  audiences  another  instrument  is  used  to  tap 
other  past  experiences.  And  teachers  often  fail  in  making 
the  situation  real  because  the  illustrations  they  prepare  so 
carefully  are  above  the  heads  or  beyond  the  experience  of 
their  pupils.  It  is  the  inalienable  right  of  every  child  to 
have  the  educational  gospel  presented  to  him  in  his  own 
tongue. 

Comparison. — Comparison,  the  other  psychological 
process  to  be  discussed,  has  two  sorts  of  values.  In  the  first 
place,  it  aids  the  teacher  in  making  situations  clear  and 
vivid,  as  has  been  said.  The  pupil  draws  from  his  past 
experience  things  similar  to  those  in  the  situation.  For  in- 
stance, in  trying  to  get  a  true  picture  of  Wordsworth's  Fid- 
dler the  pupils  are  aided  materially  by  being  referred,  on 
f.he  one  hand,  to  their  own  experience  with  fiddlers  on  the 


372  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

street,  and  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  influence  of  music  upon 
other  people,  as  shown  in  Browning's  Saul,  and  Dryden's 
Alexander's  Feast. 

This  comparison  is  sometimes  called  illustration,  and 
sometimes  analogy.  But  of  whatever  sort,  it  is  of  para- 
mount importance  in  getting  hold  of  situations  in  the  sense 
indicated  above.  The  convincing  speaker  is  frequently  one 
with  convincing  powers  of  comparison.  The  teacher  has  a 
broader  influence,  and  can  get  better  results  if  he  has  telling 
comparisons  by  which  to  make  his  explanations  understand- 
able. 

The  second  value  that  comparisons  have  (to  be  discussed 
more  fully  in  the  next  chapter)  may  be  called  comparisons 
of  application.  That  is  to  say,  after  a  solution  has  been 
reached  the  process  of  comparison  makes  it  possible  for  us 
to  observe  relations  with  other  problems  so  that  we  may 
apply  the  solution  to  other  similar  situations.  In  history, 
after  we  have  treated  of  a  problem  of  the  ancients,  it  is 
legitimate  and  valuable  to  refer  the  problem  and  its  solution 
to  modern  life  to  see  if  we  can  find  the  problem  still  with 
us,  to  find  in  what  respects  it  differs  in  form  and  to  what 
extent  the  solution  of  the  ancients  will  fit  our  conditions. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 
Adams,  Illustration  and  Exposition  in  Teaching,  pp.  250- 

274,  317-335,  354-390- 

Dopp,  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Education,  pp.  192-242, 
McMurry,  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  pp.  246-256. 
McMurry,  Special  Method  in  Geography,  pp.  11-13,  I7~I9 

and  55-75. 

EXERCISES 

i.     Is  the  amount  of  work  to  be  covered  in  a  year  a  mat- 
ter of  scientific  investigation  or  of  convention  ?    If  the  latter, 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  REALNESS  373 

is  it  absolutely  necessary  to  cover  all  the  work  in  a  course 
of  study?    Why? 

2.  What  are  the  merits  of  a  few  topics  covered  inten- 
sively as  against  an  extensive  field  covered  rapidly?    What 
are  its  disadvantages? 

3.  Give  illustrations  to  show  how  the  following  have 
made  lessons  clearer. 

1.  Diagrams. 

2.  Pictures. 

3.  Stories. 

4.  Comparisons  with  events  in  the  pupils'  own  lives. 

4.  What  are  the  chief  objections  to  dramatization? 

5.  Give  one  example  of  an  observed   case  in  which 
dramatization  was  a  failure  with  a  class. 

6.  Give  five  in  which  it  was  a  success.     Show  why  it 
was  a  success. 

7.  Give  two  cases  of  poor  use  of  blackboard. 

8.  How  would  you  have  improved  it? 

9.  Give  five  examples  in  which  a  speaker  or  teacher 
failed  because  he  did  not  clothe  his  ideas  in  the  language  of 
his  audience. 

10.  Name  ten  selections  in  literature  that  could  not  be 
made  real  to  pupils  because  they  were  not  within  the  experi- 
ence of  the  children  to  whom  they  were  taught. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 

SECTION  i.     SUBJECT-MATTER  AS  AN  INSTRUMENT 

To  understand  how  to  use  subject-matter,  such  under- 
standing as  has  been  provided  for  in  the  foregoing  chapters, 
does  not  of  necessity  imply  skill  in  use.  We  have  studied 
how  to  make  rules  and  definitions,  and  solve  problems.  But 
efficient  control  is  not  identical  with  an  understanding  of 
how  the  control  is  to  be  secured.  Skill  and  understanding 
are  different.  A  boy  may  know  how  to  handle  all  the 
processes  of  arithmetic  if  time  is  given  him,  but  unless  he 
has  skill  in  manipulation  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  efficient 
control  A  girl  may  have  enough  training  in  sewing  to  con- 
struct stitches  and  draught  patterns,  but  this  is  not  sufficient 
control  unless  it  is  skillful  control. 

Value  of  Skill. — Differences  in  degrees  of  skill  index 
the  differences  between  grades  of  men.  When  competi- 
tion is  so  keen  and  men  are  so  plentiful,  the  margin  that 
separates  success  from  defeat  is  a  very  narrow  one,  and 
that  margin  is  usually  secured  by  a  slight  superiority  in 
skill.  In  running,  the  victory  goes  ordinarily  to  the  one 
who  is  best  trained,  and  most  skillful  in  the  devices  of  the 
art,  and  usually  the  margin  between  one  contestant  and 
another  is  small.  In  teaching  as  well  as  in  the  other  profes- 
sions and  in  business,  skill  gives  one  man  precedence  over 
another.  It  has  become  a  trite  saying,  and  therefore  an 
important  one,  that  it  does  not  matter  so  much  what  a  man 

374 


THE  USE  OF  .SUBJECT-MATTER  375 

can  do  as  how  well  he  can  do  it.  The  quickness,  the  dis- 
patch, the  exactness  with  which  he  can  do  a  thing  must  be 
added  to  the  fact  that  he  can  do  it  at  all.  Many  men  can 
perform  surgical  operations,  but  the  man  who  is  the  great- 
est success  in  surgery  is  the  one  who  can  perform  them 
with  the  most  skill.  Many  men  can  play  baseball;  but  the 
only  man  who  stands  out  as  a  success  in  baseball  playing 
is  the  one  who  can  play  with  consummate  skill.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  that  skill,  in  the  close  competition  of  life, 
is  absolutely  necessary. 

Skill  is  partly  a  matter  of  judgment  and  partly  a  matter 
of  habit.  In  either  case  it  is  dependent  upon  practice  and 
repetition.  The  advantages  of  habit,  therefore,  are  advan- 
tages that  may  be  claimed  for  skill.  Of  these  three  impor- 
tant ones  may  be  mentioned. 

First,  by  making  a  rule  or  method  habitual  through 
proper  repetition,  accuracy  is  secured.  The  memorized  mul- 
tiplication fact,  the  word  spelled  without  thought  upon  it,  as 
the  pen  slips  over  the  paper,  the  steady  foot  of  the  struc- 
tural-iron worker  busy  with  thoughts  far  removed  from  his 
perilous  position,  the  experienced  engineer  at  the  throttle, 
the  pupil  in  whom  linguistic  conventions  have  been  thor- 
oughly grounded,  are  all  more  accurate  in  their  movements 
than  they  were  before  they  had  acquired  skill. 

Second,  skilled  action  is  more  rapid.  The  little  pupil  has 
laboriously  to  concentrate  on  the  formation  of  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  writing  ten  letters  per  minute ;  with  practice 
he  may  ordinarily  write  two  hundred  letters  a  minute.  A 
similar  increase  in  rapidity  is  seen  in  all  of  the  subjects 
studied  in  school  and  in  all  practices  pursued  outside. 

Third,  an  important  result  that  comes  from  increasing 
skill  is  increasing  satisfaction,  sturdiness  and  pleasure.  The 
explanation  of  the  independence  and  self-reliance  of  the 


376  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

skilled  workman,  in  comparison  with  the  unskilled  laborer 
is  due  in  large  measure  to  the  fact  that  the  former  has  a 
pride  in  his  skill  and  a  pleasure  in  recognizing  it  that  makes 
him  feel  his  independence  and  cherish  his  individuality. 
Frequently,  the  joy  that  follows  the  recognition  of  skill  in 
some  one  thing  so  permeates  a  boy's  life  that  the  influence 
is  felt  in  toning  up  his  whole  working  system,  waking  in  him 
day-dreams  and  air-castles  built  upon  the  basis  of  his  best 
ambitions. 

Standards  of  Skill. — Outside  school  there  is  only  one 
standard — that  of  absolute  efficiency.  But  in  school  the 
standard  is  influenced  wisely  and  humanly  by  differences  in 
capacity.  These  differences  are  of  two  sorts,  genetic  and 
individual. 

Standards  vary  genetically;  that  is,  there  is  one  standard 
of  skill  for  the  first  grade  and  a  higher  standard  for  the 
high  school  senior.  Theoretically,  the  standard  for  each  is 
the  best  of  which  pupils  of  the  grade  are  capable.  Prac- 
tically, in  applying  this  standard,  there  are  two  difficulties. 
In  the  first  place,  normal  standards  have  not  been  worked 
out  for  the  different  grades.  We  do  not  know  exactly  what 
amount  of  skill  to  expect  of  third,  fourth  or  fifth  grade 
children.  Consequently,  the  teacher  who  wishes  to  get  the 
best  out  of  his  pupils  may  easily  overestimate  or  under- 
estimate their  maximum  efficiency.  In  the  second  place, 
standards  in  the  same  grade  may  be  different  upon  different 
occasions.  For  instance,  a  formal  letter  written  by  a  sixth 
grade  pupil  is  expected  to  be  done  with  a  maximum  of  neat- 
ness and  care  for  grammatical  and  orthographic  details; 
but  notes  taken  hurriedly  in  preparation  for  a  theme  can- 
not be  as  neat  without  slowing  up  the  thought  processes. 
It  is  an  important  point  to  determine  just  what  standards 
should  be  maintained  in  exercise  books.  Slovenliness  must 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  377 

not  be  allowed,  extreme  neatness  and  care  for  form  may 
hinder  the  mastery  of  the  content  studied.  Desirable  as 
these  standards  are,  they  have  not  been  worked  out  fully 
and  the  teacher  has  to  do  the  best  he  can  for  himself.  How- 
ever, rapid  progress  is  being  made  in  securing  some  of  these 
standards,  as,  for  instance,  in  arithmetic  by  Stone  and 
Courtis,  in  handwriting  by  Thorndike  and  Ayres,  and  in 
high  school  composition  by  Thorndike  and  Hillegas. 

In  the  second  place,  the  school  cannot  hold  all  pupils  to 
the  same  immediate  standards  without  discouraging  those 
pupils  who  are  slow  and  inexpert.  The  best  that  each  pupil 
can  do  forms  the  immediate  standard.  The  normal  stand- 
ard for  the  grade  will  not  work  for  the  pupils  either  above 
or  below  it  except  for  promotion.  For  the  bright  boy  must 
be  held  'to  his  best  and  the  slow  student  must-  likewise  be 
judged  by  his  maximum.  What  is  each  pupil's  best  can  be 
determined  only  by  the  teacher  with  the  pupils  before  him. 

How  standards  may  be  raised. — Sometimes  a  teacher 
takes  charge  of  classes  that  do  not  have  good  standards  of 
skill  and  is  confronted  w'ith  the  problem  of  raising  their 
ideals  of  strong  work.  In  solving  this  problem  two  things 
will  assist.  First,  the  teacher,  himself,  must  have  stand- 
ards. He  must  think  about  them,  and  must  determine  that 
his  pupils  are  to  work  toward  higher  levels  of  efficiency. 
Unless  a  teacher  has  such  standards  he  cannot  hope  to 
increase  the  efficiency  of  his  pupils.  A  slovenly  teacher 
always  has  a  slovenly  class. 

Second,  skill  must  be  rewarded.  In  other  words,  if  pu- 
pils are  to  be  led  to  appreciate  skill  it  must  be  connected 
with  other  values  which  pupils  appreciate.  Results  that  ap- 
peal to  him  should  follow.  What  these  results  may  be  de- 
pend upon  the  pupils.  Praise  from  a  respected  teacher  is 
a  good  reward.  The  tremendous  saving  of  time  that  can 


378  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

be  accomplished  by  increased  skill  appeals  to  many  students 
particularly  when  the  thing  in  which  the  skill  is  to  be  gained 
is  not  more  than  normally  interesting.  As  Rowe  says,1 
experimentation  should  be  carried  on  with  individual  pupils 
to  find  what  reward  will  appeal.  Unpleasant  results  arising 
from  lack  of  skill  can  also  be  visited  upon  delinquents.  This 
does  not  mean  constant  nagging  because,  after  a  series  of 
continuous  scoldings,  the  pupil  ceases  to  value  the  good  opin- 
ion of  the  teacher  and  so  will  not  try  to  increase  his  skill 
to  secure  what  he  does  not  value. 

In  securing  an  interest  in  high  standards  the  teacher,  then, 
has  to  have  such  standards  himself  and  must  utilize  the 
values  which  the  child  appreciates  in  such  a  way  that  he  will 
work  for  skill  in  order  to  secure  the  control  of  these.  This 
is  a  matter  of  ingenuity  rather  than  of  rule  and  principle. 

SECTION  2.    APPLICATION 

Definition. — Application,  as  the  term  implies,  is  the 
process  of  using  a  method  of  control  which  has  been  learned 
in  connection  with  one  situation  in  controlling  another  situa- 
tion which,  while  not  identical  with  the  first,  is  essentially 
the  same.  A  pupil  learns  addition  and  multiplication  in 
tables  and  with  abstract  figures  in  school.  When  he  applies 
these  to  figuring  out  the  total  of  a  grocery  bill  consisting 
of  several  items  he  is  applying  his  method  of  control  (addi- 
tion and  multiplication)  learned  in  one  situation  (in  tables 
and  abstractly)  to  control  another  situation  (totalling  a 
grocery  bill),  which,  while  not  identical  with  the  form  in 
which  addition  and  multiplication  was  previously  learned, 
is  essentially  a  case  of  addition  and  multiplication. 

Its  Importance. — There  are  two  reasons  which  make 
application  necessary.  First,  a  principle  is  never  fully  under- 

J  Habit  Formation,  pp.  141-6. 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  379 

stood  until  it  has  received  frequent  applications  to  concrete 
cases.  "All  men  are  born  free  and  equal"  does  not  mean 
much  if  it  is  only  lip-learned.  Its  essence,  its  flaws  and  its 
power  are  appreciated  only  when  it  is  consistently  and  con- 
scientiously applied  to  the  negro,  the  servant,  the  drunk- 
ard, the  imbecile,  and  the  plutocrat.  Percentage  is  increas- 
ingly well  understood  as  it  is  carried  through  all  its  appli- 
cation; interest,  discount,  commission,  taxes,  etc.  English 
grammar  is  not  efficiently  appreciated  till  the  pupil  uses  it  in 
all  his  spoken  and  written  work.  Every  application  of  geog- 
raphy to  history  and  literature,  to  botany  and  agriculture, 
to  physics  and  sociology  gives  a  better  understanding  of  the 
subject. 

Second,  the  chief  occupation  of  life  is  to  handle  wisely  a 
series  of  situations  as  they  arise.  Living  is  just  meeting 
one  thing  after  another.  I  am  writing  now,  I  shall  have 
lunch  in  a  few  minutes,  then  I  shall  go  to  the  office  and  dic- 
tate one  letter  after  another,  I  shall  select  a  teacher  for  a 
school,  buy  a  Christmas  present  for  a  friend,  settle  what  to 
do  with  an  aching  tooth,  confer  with  a  friend  about  school 
extension  and  so  on  indefinitely.  These  are  a  few  of  the 
things  that  must  be  done  in  an  afternoon,  and  they  are 
typical  of  every  afternoon.  Every  person  has  his  own  series, 
following  along  at  the  rate  of  one  a  minute,  or  maybe,  more 
rapidly  than  that. 

Now,  facts,  principles  and  rules  are  simply  and  solely 
devices  for  handling  these  particulars.  If  I  have  a  good 
system  of  principles  that  will  take  me  through  each  of  these 
with  accuracy,  rapidity  and  satisfaction,  I  am  efficient.  But 
if  I  have  a  system  and  am  not  able  to  apply  them  to  par- 
ticular situations  it  is  of  little  use.  I  may  have  a  great  deal 
of  factual  and  isolated  information  but  if  I  cannot  use  it 
tninute  by  minute  I  am  only  an  educated  incompetent. 


380  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Application  is  therefore  necessary  because  the  application 
of  principles  is  the  chief  function  and  business  of  intelli- 
gence in  life.  To  control  each  situation  by  reference  to 
principles  is  the  characteristic  of  efficiency.  To  control  it 
empirically,  by  rule  of  thumb  is  the  necessary  lot  of  the 
uneducated.  To  have  principles  and  not  to  apply  them  is 
the  mark  of  pseudo-education,  of  one  who  is  an  educated 
performer  in  a  world  of  words  and  abstractions  but  an  il- 
literate worker  in  the  world  of  concrete  activity  and  feeling. 

Application  before  and  after. — The  applications  are 
usually  thought  of  as  coming  after  the  learning  of  the 
principle  because  it  is  not  possible  to  apply  something  that 
one  does  not  possess. 

But  there  is  a  very  significant  sense  in  which  the  applica- 
tion of  a  principle  precedes  the  mastery.  In  fact,  outside  of 
school  it  is  the  normal  thing,  the  usual  occurrence,  to  find 
the  necessity  for  the  application  of  the  principle,  the  chief 
cause  of  its  study.  The  clerk  wants  to  keep  books  better 
and  so  he  learns  the  principles  and  methods  of  bookkeeping. 
The  farmer  wishes  to  grow  more  corn,  so  he  studies  the 
principles  of  corn  growing.  The  housewife  wishes  to  have 
pretty  roses,  and  studies  enough  horticulture  to  serve  her 
purposes.  In  each  case,  a  person  felt  the  need  of  being 
able  to  apply  certain  principles  to  his  immediate  needs,  he 
saw  the  necessity  for  application,  he  appreciated  the  advan- 
tage to  accrue ;  but  he  did  not  have  the  principles.  So,  in  a 
very  significant  sense,  the  desire  to  apply  principles  in  these 
cases  formed  the  motive  for  the  study  of  the  principles. 

The  customary  school  procedure  is,  in  the  cases  cited,  to 
teach  bookkeeping  and  make  the  application  to  particular 
books  later,  to  teach  the  principles  of  agriculture,  and  make 
applications  later  upon  particular  fields,  to  study  horticul- 
ture first  and  raise  rose  bushes  afterwards.  This  procedure 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  381 

is  merely  another  case  of  studying  the  subject-matter  for  its 
own  sake  first  and  then  making  applications  after  it  is 
learned. 

But,  as  previously  pointed  out  in  connection  with  motive, 
if  one  can  make  the  pupils  feel  some  other  supporting  need, 
much  additional  interest  will  be  engendered  because  the 
concrete  case  in  which  he  sees  the  need  for  the  application 
of  a  principle  as  yet  unknown  is  likely  to  be  of  greater 
compelling  power  than  the  interest  in  an  as  yet  unknown 
principle  whose  application  is  not  seen. 

Illustrations  of  such  are  easy  to  find  in  any  class  in  which 
the  teacher  does  not  feel  that  the  order  of  the  subject-matter 
is  foreordained.  In  Chapter  XV,  in  Composition,  this 
method  is  used  all  the  way  through.  The  pupils  wrote  and 
saw  that  they  needed  to  apply  some  principle.  They  studied 
the  principle  and  then  applied  it.  First  was  felt  the  neces- 
sity for  application  of  some  rule,  then  the  discovery  and 
study  of  the  rule  and  then  its  application. 

In  algebra  a  problem  such  as  this :  A  farmer  has  a  seed 
plot  16x18  feet  and  wishes  to  add  to  its  area  144  square 
feet  by  enlarging  it  the  same  distance  each  way.  In  finding 
the  answer  to  this  three  new  principles  had  to  be  taken  up — 
each  needed  because  their  application  was  necessary  in  order 
to  find  the  answer.  In  physics  the  measurement  of  water 
power  is  introduced  because  pupils  want  to  know  the  capac- 
ity of  an  undershot  wheel  or  a  turbine.  Electricity  is  stud- 
ied in  order  to  learn  how  to  fix  a  door  bell.  Musical  theory 
is  introduced  to  explain  the  combinations  of  piano  notes 
which  are  pleasant.  The  theory  of  light  is  introduced  to 
explain  the  method  by  which  light  comes  from  the  sun  to 
the  earth. 

Ordinarily,  in  most  classes  the  applications  are  made  only 
after  the  principles  are  studied.  But  as  just  seen,  many 


382  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

cases  arise  in  which  the  necessity  for  application  can  with 
wisdom  precede  the  study.  And  then  many  other  applica- 
tions can  be  made  later.  To  search  for  these  introductory 
applications,  to  make  a  note  of  them  when  tl  ,y  occur  in 
order  to  use  them  as  soon  as  possible,  are  practices  which 
add  much  to  the  joy  and  to  the  intelligence  of  teaching. 

Illustrations  of  Application. — There  are  two  types  of 
application.  The  first  and  easiest  of  these  to  use  is  the 
formal  application  exercise.  In  arithmetic,  following  the 
enunciation  of  a  principle,  a  series  of  problems  usually  occurs 
differing  in  detail  but  similar  in  type  and,  therefore,  capable 
of  solution  by  the  principle  just  studied.  In  grammar,  after 
the  definition  a  series  of  exercises  is  given,  utilizing  the 
definition.  These  formal  exercises  are  well  known  to  any 
teacher  or  student.  To  secure  the  best  they  should  be, 
as  has  just  been  said,  as  varied  as  possible  within  the 
limits  of  space  and  time. 

But  a  much  more  difficult  and  more  important  type  of 
application  than  the  formal  exercises  is  the  practical  type. 
In  grammar  the  best  application  to  make  is  the  application 
to  the  spoken  and  written  language  of  the  pupils.  In  arith- 
metic, problems  from  the  pupils'  own  intimate  experience 
should  be  sought  for.  Particularly  in  arithmetic,  there  is 
a  great  field  for  a  rural  school  arithmetic  which  will  carry 
all  its  principles  in  problems  dressed  in  the  concepts  and 
concrete  experiences  of  the  farm.  In  physiology,  an  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  to  practical  individual  and  civic 
sanitation  and  hygiene  is  invaluable.  In  civics,  to  make  the 
principles  and  concepts  function  in  the  practical  political  life 
of  the  pupils  is  of  more  value  than  mere  knowledge  of  the 
text-book  civics. 

This  is,  of  course,  very  difficult  and  unfortunately  no  rule 
can  be  laid  down  for  doing  work  of  that  kind  except  this, 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  383 

that  the  teacher  should  have  an  alert  eye,  open  for  all 
possible  practical,  concrete  cases.  A  note  should  be  made 
whenever  they  occur,  to  be  utilized  at  the  appropriate  time. 

Applications  Set  by  the  Pupils. — Not  less  important  is 
the  practice  of  having  the  children  find  situations  to  which 
the  principle  will  apply.  For  in  the  first  place,  it  gives  the 
control  of  the  principle  that  comes  from  mastery.  To  be 
able  to  take  the  principle  and  handle  it  gives  familiarity 
therewith  and  powrer  to  utilize.  In  the  second  place,  it  makes 
the  pupil  independent  of  the  teacher.  He  becomes  in  his. 
crude  way  an  original  investigator  and  a  disseminator  of 
knowledge.  It  appeals  to  his  puzzle  instinct.  His  powers 
are  stimulated  to  search  in  wider  fields.  He  does  not  follow, 
but  leads. 

In  school,  the  teacher  of  history  may  ask  his  pupils  to 

find  cases  in  history  or  modern  life  where  the  same  principle 
is  involved.  In  arithmetic  the  pupils  may  make  up  problems. 
In  grammar  they  may  collect  instances.  In  geography  they 
may  give  problems  from  the  environment  of  the  school.  And 
in  all  such  instances  a  premium  should  be  placed  upon 
originality. 

SECTION  3.    DRILL 

Definition. — Drill  is  defined  by  Rowe  as  the  "persistent 
retraversing  in  whole  or  in  part  of  a  more  or  less  definite 
habit-path  in  order  to  make  it  automatic."  The  es&ence  of 
drill  is  intelligent  repetition  and  the  standard  is  automatism 
such  that  the  item  worked  upon  will  carry  itself  through 
with  a  minimum  of  attention.  The  difference  between  drill 
and  application  brings  out  clearly  the  nature  of  drill. 
In  the  latter  the  same  principle  is  gone  over  and  over  again 
in  exactly  the  same  way,  while  in  application  the  principle 
is  worked  over  in  a  different  form  in  each  case.  Drill  on 


384  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

the  table  of  sixes  consists  in  repeating  the  table  over  and 
over;  application  problems  are  of  this  sort:  Find  the  cost 
of  24  pencils  at  6  cents  each,  or,  if  milk  is  6  cents  a  quart 
what  will  12  quarts  cost?  etc. 

Dril!  vs.  Application. — Drill  differs  from  application  in 
that  it  goes  back  over  the  same  principle  again  and  again 
until  control  is  secured  in  one  situation,  while  application 
seeks  to  apply  the  principle  to  new  situations. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  drill  is  not  a  necessary  school 
process.  It  is  asserted  that  if  the  pupil  utilizes  the  prin- 
ciple in  new  situations,  sufficient  skill  will  be  secured.  For 
instance,  it  is  said  that  writing  exercises,  as  such,  are  not 
necessary;  that  if  children  are  taught  to  form  the  letters 
they  will  become  sufficiently  expert  if  they  merely  write 
the  papers  and  exercises  which  are  involved  in  the  study  of 
arithmetic,  history,  or  geography.  Again,  following  this 
principle,  drill  on  the  multiplication  tables  is  not  necessary; 
sufficient  control  comes  from  working  problems  involving 
multiplication. 

However  plausible  this  theory  may  be,  it  is  not  true  to 
life.  Outside  of  school,  children  and  adults  drill  them- 
selves. A  boy  who  has  just  learned  to  whistle  practices  for 
days  to  the  distraction  of  all  within  sound  of  his  efforts. 
Youths  will  spend  hours  by  a  barnside  drilling  on  a  new 
serve  in  tennis.  Musicians  spend  years  practicing  scales. 
Wherever  there  is  a  desire  for  skill  in  technique  there  is  a 
-necessity  for  drill.  And  the  greater  the  desire,  the  more 
strenuous  the  drill. 

So,  in  school,  there  is  the  most  urgent  necessity  for  mem- 
orizing and  drill,  for  review  and  rereview.  And  this  stands 
in  the  greatest  need  of  being  emphasized,  for  in  recent 
years  there  is  a  pernicious  tendency  afloat  in  pedagogical 
literature  and  practice  to  the  effect  that  what  is  needed  is 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  385 

that  pupils  undi  ftand  what  they  study  rather  than  that  they 
should  memorize  it.  As  if  there  were  any  antagonism  be- 
tween reason  and  memory !  Why  has  nature  given  us  mem- 
ories? And  why  does  the  popular  mind  exalt  the  man  of 
strong  powers  of  memory?  Entirely  for  the  reason  that 
memory  has  such  a  tremendous  place  in  life  that  the  recog- 
nition of  its  value  has  become  almost  an  instinct  in  the  race. 
The  theory  that  what  is  needed  is  not  facts  stored  in  the 
memory,  but  a  knowledge  of  where  to  find  facts  when 
needed,  is  harmful.  In  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  cases 
our  solutions  must  be  worked  out  in  terms  of  what  we 
know.  We  have  neither  time  nor  opportunity  to  rush  to 
books  before  we  arrive  at  a  solution.  If  we  waited  to  do 
so,  the  time  for  acting  might  be  past. 

What  to  Drill. — Speaking  in  its  broadest  terms  only 
those  things  should  be  drilled  which  can  with  advantage  be 
used  again  and  again  in  an  exact  form  in  later  life.  Notably 
spelling,  reading,  writing,  grammar,  and  the  essentials  of 
arithmetic  are  samples.  They  will  be  used  again  and  again 
and  they  are  exact  iri  form:  there  is  one  best  way  to  spell, 
to  pronounce,  to  form  letters,  to  speak,  and  to  multiply  and 
divide. 

But  in  many  subjects,  not  so  exact  in  form,  there  are  ele- 
ments that  are  of  such  importance  as  to  be  learned  in  exact 
and  permanent  form.  For  instance,  in  literature  there  are 
many  poems,  so  full  of  the  philosophy  of  life  aptly  ex- 
pressed, that  they  should  be  memorized  verbatim.  In  his- 
tory, pivotal  dates,  events  which  opened  an  epoch  or  in  which 
it  culminated  need  to  be  fixed  permanently. 

It  is  the  teacher's  business,  then,  to  scan  every  lesson  in 
order  to  see  if  there  are  in  it  facts  and  methods  that  need 
to  be  made  automatic.  These  should  be  intelligently  se- 
lected, neither  with  a  prodigal  nor  a  parsimonious  hand. 


386  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

This  is  not  an  easy  thing  always  to  do.  "If  a  lesson  is 
given  in  drawing  a  vase,  the  habits  involved  are  not  so  clear 
at  first  sight  as  in  a  writing  lesson.  It  is  evidently  a  lesson 
in  habit-getting.  The  teacher  wishes  the  children  to  get  the 
ability  to  reproduce  objects  of  that  nature.  What  are  the 
habits  ?  The  writer  remembers  well  what  an  enigma  to  him 
as  a  child  was  the  meaning  of  a  noted  illustrator  who  said, 
all  that  was  necessary  to  draw  well  was  to  be  able  to  see. 
The  boy  knew  he  could  see  as  well  as  anybody,  but  he  knew 
equally  well  that  he  could  not  draw.  What  was  meant  by 
seeing  in  this  case?  He  had  not  yet  observed  enough  to 
learn  that  often  square  surfaces  are  not  seen  as  square  and, 
in  fact,  that  forms  are  seldom  seen  exactly  as  they  are. 
He  had  still  to  learn  that  colors  are  not  always  what  one 
would  think,  and  that  black  surfaces  with  a  little  light  re- 
flecting from  them  ordinarily  must  be  drawn  or  represented 
by  white,  while  white  surfaces  in  the  shadow  must  be  pro- 
portionate4y  shaded.  If,  now,  he  could  use  these  points  to 
just  the  degree  necessary  in  reproducing  objects,  he  would 
not  only  have  a  general  habit  of  observing  accurately,  but 
also  one  of  executing  or  representing  accurately,  the  object 
observed.  Seeing  in  the  sense  used  by  the  illustrator  cov- 
ered, then,  all  these  sorts  of  activity,  and  more.  When  the 
teacher  wishes  the  children  to  draw  the  vase,  it  may  be 
because  that  lesson  is  set  by  the  drawing  inspector  or  super- 
visor. Little  will  be  accomplished  if  each  child  merely 
makes  a  drawing,  shows  it,  and  hands  it  in.  He  will  know 
neither  more  nor  less  than  he  did  before  and  will  be  only 
the  slightest  trifle  more  accurate  and  easy  with  his  pencil. 
If  the  teacher  has  a  chance  to  measure  by  noting  the  pro- 
portionate distances  on  his  pencil,  and  thus  shows  the  child 
how  to  measure  for  himself — if  from  several  whites,  blacks, 
and  grays  he  matches  the  light  and  shadow  on  the  vase, 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  387 

then  he  will  be  on  the  way  toward  establishing  a  habit 
which  will  help  him  to  be  independent  of  all  guessing  and 
to  find  out  for  himself  whether  the  vertical  lines  are  really 
the  proper  length  compared  with  the  horizontal,  or  where 
and  how  much  shading  is  needed.  Consequently  this  les- 
son, though  not  contributing  much  practice,  still  in  getting 
all  the  proportions  and  shades  needed  will  contribute  its 
mite,  if  we  treat  it  as  a  habit  lesson.  It  may  be  a  continua- 
tion of  one  begun  months  before/'1 

Once  these  candidates  for  automatic  learning  have  been 
picked  out,  however,  they  should  not  be  left  till  they  are 
automatic.  The  states  and  capitals,  the  important  rivers 
of  continents  in  order,  capes,  important  commercially  or 
topographically,  and  many  other  things  of  a  like  sort,  should 
be  memorized  thoroughly  in  geography.  In  history  certain 
dates,  lists  of  the  names  of  administrators  of  the  pupils' 
native  land  as  the  presidents  of  the  United  States  and  the 
sovereigns  of  England  (for  British  boys  and  girls)  should 
be  memorized  and  sung  and  rhymed  if  necessary.  The 
multiplication  tables  and  important  definitions  in  grammar 
should  go  with  the  facility  of  eenie-meenie-minie-mo. 
Under  the  old  regime  everything  was  memorized ;  unocr  the 
new  regime  we  are  in  danger  of  memorizing  nothing ;  under 
the  true  regime  that  worth  memorizing  is  selected,  but  once 
having  been  selected  it  is  memorized  in  thorough-going 
fashion. 

Motive  for  drill. — There  are  three  sorts  of  motive  for 
drill.  One  motive  is  interest  in  drill  for  the  fun  one  can  get 
out  of  it.  This  is  probably  stronger  than  most  writers  on 
methods  of  teaching  will  admit  and  not  so  strong  as  most 
teachers  assume.  Children  do  enjoy  retraversing  something, 
if  it  happens  to  be  interesting.  They  sing  ditties  over  and 

1  Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  pp.  102-3. 


388  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

over  again,  they  ask  for  the  same  story,  and  admit  no  varia- 
tions. A  boy  will  recite  his  spelling  lesson  with  a  good  deal 
of  interest  if  he  happens  to  be  fairly  good  in  spelling.  But 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  about  the  presence  and 
absence  of  this  interest  and  it  is  likely  to  wane  before  the 
process  is  finally  made  automatic. 

In  that  case  appeal  is  made  to  generic  values.  Certain 
rewards  and  punishments  of  a  generic  sort  are  utilized. 
Perhaps  the  boy  is  "kept  in"  if  he  does  not  know  his  spell- 
ing lesson,  his  tables  or  his  definitions  in  grammar ;  perhaps 
he  is  graded  on  his  efficiency,  or  receives  a  special  reward 
for  good  work.  Emulation  in  the  form  of  matches  may  be 
resorted  to,  or  pride  in  speed  may  be  engendered. 

But  appeal  may,  also,  be  made  to  specific  motives  and 
should  be  wherever  possible.  The  function  of  drill  is  to 
give  speed  and  accuracy.  If  a  person  wants  to  be  neither 
accurate  nor  rapid,  the  probability  is  that  he  will  never  drill. 
But  if  he  wants  speed  or  accuracy,  particularly  speed,  and 
does  not  have  it,  he  will  of  course  feel  the  need  for  drill. 
In  appealing,  then,  to  the  specific  motive  for  drill  we  make 
the  pupil  aware  of  the  fact  that  he  is  not  sufficiently  rapid. 

Illustrations  of  this  are  numerous.  A  group  of  pupils  in- 
tent upon  playing  a  game  and  adding  up  their  scores  to  see 
who  is  the  winner  raise  a  clamor  to  the  teacher  for  drill 
in  addition  to  keep  the  game  from  standing  still.  A  foot- 
ball team  after  a  stinging  defeat  "gets  down  to  business," 
as  the  coach  expresses  it.  A  boy  who  cannot  find  out  how 
much  it  will  cost  him  to  make  a  hotbed  because  of  lack  of 
speed  in  lumber  measures  is  in  a  receptive  state  for  drill. 
Students  in  high  school  who  have  trouble  in  second-year 
German  because  of  weakness  with  grammatical  rules  feel 
the  need  for  drill  upon  the  first-year  forms. 

Teachers,  unfortunately,  do  not  make  as  frequent  use  of 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  389 

this  motive  as  they  should.  In  Caesar,  the  teacher  is  inclined 
to  blame  the  first-year  teacher  instead  of  recognizing  that 
the  tendency  of  the  human  mind  is  to  forget,  and  that  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  a  good  drill  is  beautifully  exem- 
plified in  the  failure  of  the  pupils  to  use  the  grammar  as 
skillfully  as  they  should.  Wherever  the  teacher  of  an  ad- 
vanced subject,  or  of  the  advanced  portion  of  any  subject, 
gets  an  opportunity  to  drive  home  upon  the  pupils  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  proficient  in  earlier  forms  he  should  do 
so  and  follow  that  up  with  thorough  drills  and  reviews. 

Preparatory  Drill. — A  query  arises :  Since  pupils  un- 
dertake drill  with  so  much  greater  spirit  when  they  feel  the 
need  for  it,  ought  any  drill  be  given  before  situations 
actually  arise  in  which  they  see  the  need?  It  would  seem 
at  first  glance  that  the  answer  would  be  in  the  negative. 
But  since  the  motive  is  the  thing  we  are  after,  it  is  possible 
to  secure  it  by  bringing  the  students  to  see  that  the  prin- 
ciple will  be  used  frequently,  and  that  a  little  drill  now  will 
save  trouble  later.  This  is  true  to  life.  We  look  ahead 
and  prepare  for  the  future. 

Instead  of  waiting  for  errors  to  arise  in  exercises  or  for 
slowness  to  become  evident  to  the  pupils  when  they  apply 
rules  of  grammar  or  tables  in  arithmetic,  the  teacher  may 
rely  upon  what  they  know  from  past  experiences  that 
drill  had  better  be  given  now  to  save  time  in  the  long  run. 
But  wherever  practicable,  the  pupils  should  be  made  aware 
of  poor  performance  whenever  it  shows  itself. 

.How  to  Drill. — Methods  of  drill  are  found  in  psychol- 
ogy under  Methods  of  Memorising  and  Methods  of  Forming 
Habits.  Both  of  these  have  several  factors  in  common 
which  will  be  mentioned. 

The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  have  a  strong  motive. 
Much  is  dependent  upon  the  earnestness  that  is  put  into  the 


390 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


work  from  the  start.  In  the  case  of  habit,  the  "initiative" 
must  be  strong. 

The  strength  of  the  motive  is  determined  in  large  part  by 
the  affection  of  pupils  for  high  standards.  If  the  pupil  is 
toned  up  to  high  speed  and  to  accurate  and  efficient  work,  he 
will  feel  their  absence  more  keenly.  The  methods  of  get- 
ting this  were  stated  above. 

The  second  thing  necessary  is  to  have  the  pupils  clearly 
understand  what  is  to  be  drilled.  If  neatness  is  to  be  drilled 
he  should  know  definitely  what  he  must  do  to  be  neat.  If 
a  poem  is  to  be  memorized  he  should  understand  the  poem 
and  much  time  should  be  spent  in  correcting  his  errors 
before  the  learning  has  gone  too  far.  If  he  has  to  learn 
to  handle  a  pen  he  should  be  shown  with  the  most  minute 
pains,  concretely,  by  the  teacher,  just  how  it  is  to  be  held. 
Often  a  teacher  will  say  to  the  class,  "Now,  let  us  see  if  we 
cannot  read  this  better."  But  they  can  do  nothing  intelli- 
gently because  they  do  not  know  what  "better"  reading 
means.  If  they  are  to  cultivate  a  habit  of  good  reading,  they 
must  understand  what  the  elements  of  good  reading  are. 

The  third  factor  is  repetition  with  attention.  Mere  repeti- 
tion is  not  sufficient.  Strayer1  says :  "A  child  learns  to 
spell,  a  word  not  simply  because  he  repeats  the  letters  or 
writes  them  in  the  correct  order  a  hundred  times.  We  all 
have  knowledge  of  cases  in  which  this  sort  of  repetition  has 
seemingly  resulted  in  no  advancement.  The  most  econom- 
ical method  of  learning  to  spell  requires  that  the  maximum 
of  attention  be  given  while  the  letters  are  repeated.  The 
story  of  the  boy  who,  after  he  had  written  after  school  the 
phrase  'I  have  gone'  a  hundred  times,  wrote  at  the  bottom 
of  his  paper  for  the  information  of  the  teacher,  who  had 
left  the  room,  'I  have  went  home,'  is  a  case  in  point.  The 

1  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  p.  44. 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  391 

trouble  with  this  boy  was  not  that  he  had  not  repeated  the 
correct  form  often  enough,  but  that  he  had  not  attended 
to  it.  He  had  failed  to  realize  the  significance  of  what  he 
was  doing.  Doubtless  his  attention,  instead  of  being  fixed 
on  the  work  in  hand,  was  more  largely  given  to  the  game  of 
baseball  his  companions  were  playing,  or  to  the  prospect  of 
the  delights  of  the  swimming  pool." 

In  order  to  get  a  maximum  of  attention  the  periods  of 
study  should  not  be  too  long.  The  probabilities  are  that 
children  waste  half  their  time  in  studying  a  lesson.  For  it 
has  been  demonstrated  time  and  again  that  where  primary 
pupils  go  to  school  for  half  a  day  classes  are  as  far  ad- 
vanced at  the  end  of  the  year  as  when  they  spend  the  whole 
day  in  school.  And  schools  in  which  one-half  the  day  is 
spent  in  manual  training  classes  even  with  little  correlation 
between  that  work  and  the  book  and  recitation  work,  are 
found  to  produce  as  good  results  in  the  "regular"  school 
work  as  those  which  spend  the  whole  day  on  it. 

Again,  if  pupils  can  be  taught  to  give  ten  minutes  for  a 
special  drill  study  three  times  in  a  day  at  different  periods 
they  will  produce  better  work  than  if  they  spend  thirty  min- 
utes at  one  time.  Pupils  will  practice  this  if  the  teacher 
is  earnest  and  patient  and  takes  time  to  show  them  that 
what  they  should  strive  to  do  is  to  do  the  best  work  in  the 
least  time. 

Physical  conditions  assist  in  maintaining  attention.  Pure 
cold  air  is  a  great  stimulant.  Generally  speaking,  the  posi- 
tion of  attention,  erect  body,  tense  muscles,  etc.,  if  not  car- 
ried to  the  point  of  fatigue,  assist  in  keeping  attention. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  boys  study  best  when  sprawled  out 
with  nine-tenths  of  the  body  below  the  desk  top.  Those 
positions  or  conditions  which  are  most  conducive  to  atten- 
tion should  be  studied  intelligently  and  adopted, 


392 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


Working  for  speed  (but  not  at  the  expense  of  accuracy) 
helps  to  hold  the  attention  and  may  safely  be  adopted  after 
the  thing  to  be  memorized  or  habituated  has  been  clearly 
understood  and  made  accurate  a  few  times  without  an)' 
thought  of  speed.  First  be  accurate  and  then  as  rapid  as 
possible  is  a  good  motto  with  which  to  hold  the  attention. 

In  this  repetition  there  comes  a  time  when  the  pupils  and 
the  teacher  recognize  that  certain  parts  give  difficulty.  Then 
it  pays  to  spend  time  on  these.  A  pupil  in  learning  multi- 
plication finds  trouble  in  remembering  whether  6  x  9  is  54 
or  56.  This  should  have  additional  repetition  and  attention. 
The  pupil  should  work  out  some  trick  for  remembering  this 
before  returning  to  the  table  as  a  whole.  In  memorizing 
a  poem  some  line  or  lines  seem  to  be  particularly  difficult 
to  master.  These  again  should  be  drilled  upon  by  them- 
selves, and  when  mastered  the  drill  upon  the  whole  may  be 
resumed.  » 

The  fourth  important  point  is  to  permit  of  no  exceptions. 
In  memorizing  absolute  accuracy  each  time  must  be  in- 
sisted upon.  In  forming  a  habit  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  lapse.  If  a  pupil  is  to  make  a  letter  in  a  certain  way 
he  should  always  do  it.  If  he  is  to  be  neat,  he  should 
always  be  neat. 

In  case  the  pupil  forgets  something  he  should  try  to 
recollect  it  at  first  by  unaided  recall  instead  of  at  once  con- 
sulting the  book  or  the  teacher.  In  spelling  a  word  with 
which  he  has  temporary  difficulty,  he  should  spell  it  to  him- 
self, write  it  out  rapidly,  look  at  it  carefully  before  consult- 
ing the  dictionary ;  for  this  practice  strengthens  the  memory. 

If  he  is  forming  a  habit,  and  lapses,  the  original  con- 
siderations that  made  him  begin  the  habit  should  be  re- 
viewed. If  he  can  get  back  to  his  first  ideas  he  will  be  likely 
to  have  as  strong  an  incentive  for  continuing  as  he  formerly 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  393 

had  for  starting.  For  instance,  he  certainly  had  certain 
strong  reasons  for  deciding  to  be  punctual.  Later  if,  when 
he  lapses,  he  can  be  made  to  think  vividly  of  the  original 
reasons  he  had  for  making  his  decision,  he  will  begin  to  be 
punctual  again. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  121-124. 
De  Garmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  159-177. 

Pyle,  Outlines  of  Educational  Psychology,  pp.  146-158. 

Rowe,  Habit  Formation,  pp.  260-273. 

Strayer,  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  pp.  41-50. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  six  cases  that  have  come  under  your  own  ob- 
servation where  practice  improved  accuracy  or  speed. 

2.  Does  your  own  experience  bear  out  the  statement 
that  skill  produces  a  high  degree  of  pleasure?    Under  what 
conditions  might  it  not.?    Why? 

3.  Collect  samples  of  careful  writing  from  the  best  five 
writers  in  each  grade  from  the  primary  grade  to  the  fourth 
year  in  the  high  school.    What  do  you  observe  concerning 
improvement  in  standards?    How  do  you  account  for  this? 

4.  Does  it  always  happen  that  the  student  with  th,e  high- 
est skill  in  school  who  outstrips  some  other  pupil  who  has 
not  so  much  absolute  skill  but  who  tries  harder,  always 
gives  a  better  account  of  himself  in  life  after  graduation 
than  does  the  less  skillful  student?    Why? 

5.  How  does  a  coach  raise  standards  of  excellence? 
Work  out  his  methods  in  detail.    What  use  could  be  made 
of  these  in  regular  school  work? 

6.  "Honesty  is  the  best  policy."     Apply  this  to  cases 


394  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

found  partly  in  books  but  chiefly  in  practical  life:  cases 
where  this  principle  was  shown  to  be  correct.  Give  two 
cases  where  it  did  not  seem  to  be. 

7.  "The  subject  agrees  with  the  verb  in  number  and 
person."     Give  five  of  the  commonest  grammatical  errors 
that  could  be  cured  by  an  application  of  this  principle. 

8.  Give  a  half  dozen  humorous  cases  in  which  a  person 
who  knew  a  principle  was  unable  to  apply  it. 

9.  Give  five  cases  in  which  a  method  of  handling  his- 
torical situations  in  the  past  might  be  applied  to  modern 
situations.     Wherein  might  they  fail  to  work? 

10.  What  geographical  facts  will  assist  in  understanding 
the  plan  of  campaign  in  the  Civil  War? 

11.  Give  ten  cases  from  your  own  experience  in  which 
the  necessity  felt  for  applying  some  principle  or  fact  led  to 
a  study  of  that  fact.     To  what  extent  could  such  a  prin- 
ciple be  used  in  school  ?    What  would  be  the  effect  upon  the 
course  of  study  if  it  were  used  as  the  only  method  of  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  each  unit  of  subject-matter? 

12.  From  the  point  of  view  of  variety  of  application  and 
practical  value  of  the  problems,  estimate  and  compare  two 
text-books  in  arithmetic  or  in  any  other  subject  in  which 
you  are  particularly  interested.    How,  also,  does  the  number 
of  drill  problems  compare  with  the  number  of  application 
problems?    Would  you  change  this  proportion?    Why? 

13.  Take  such  a  principle  as,  The  volume  of  a  cylinder 
is  the  product  of  the  height  into  the  area  of  the  base,  and 
make  up  four  problems  of  a  practical  sort  but  of  different 
types  that  would  serve  as  exercises  of  application.    Make  a 
good  practical  problem  that  would  serve  as  an  introduction 
to  the  principle. 

14.  What  is  wrong  in  writing  out  a  table  of  sixes  to 
write  all  the  sixes  in  a  column,  then  the  times,  then  I, 


THE  USE  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  .  395 

2,  3,  etc.?     Is  it  better  or  worse  than  writing  it  across? 
Why? 

15.  State  devices  you  have  used  for  keeping  your  atten- 
tion  from   wandering.     From   contributions  made  by   the 
class  what  devices  can  you  add  to  those  mentioned  in  this 
text  and  in  the  references? 

16.  Are  there  any  subjects  in  which  application  will  give 
enough  drill  without  special  drill  exercises?     Upon  what 
data  do  you  base  your  opinion? 

17.  Give   six  recent   cases   in   which,   because  of  poor 
results,  you  have  felt  the  necessity   for  drill  and  review 
of  work  covered  previously. 

18.  Is  it  better  in  memorizing  to  read  a  selection  of  say 
twenty  lines  over  and  over  until  it  is  all  memorized,  or  to 
read  it  and  memorize  it  line  by  line? 

19.  What  are  your  personal  habits  for  best  concentration 
of  attention?     Note  how  your  habits  differ  from  those  of 
other  students  and  in  what  respect  they  are  similar. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS 

Nature  of  the  Assignment. — The  essential  characteris- 
tics of  the  assignment  can  best  be  demonstrated  by  a  com- 
parison with  the  recitation.  This  latter  deals  with  subject- 
matter,  motives,  problems,  solutions,  and  application.  The 
former  deals  with  exactly  the  same  elements  as  are  found  in 
the  assignment.  The  pupil  has'  certain  problems  to  solve, 
subject-matter  to  handle,  hypotheses  to  make,  verifications 
to  carry  on  and  applications  to  discover.  The  difference 
between  the  two  lies  entirely  in  the  fact  that  in  the  assign- 
ment the  teacher  gives  less  directive  assistance  and  the  pupil 
relies  upon  his  ability  and  intelligence  to  a  greater  degree 
than  in  the  recitation  where  the  teacher  is  handily  present 
to  assist  in  surmounting  obstacles. 

Dangers  of  different  types  arise  in  each.  In  the  recitation 
too  much  assistance  of  an  unintelligent  and  thoughtless  sort 
is  likely  to  be  given,  while  in  the  assignment  there  is  likely 
to  be  too  little  assistance  of  an  intelligent  and  thoughtful 
sort  given.  In  the  former  too  much  is  told  and  too  little 
discovered  by  the  pupil ;  in  the  latter  too  little  explanation 
and  assistance  is  given,  and,  again,  too  little  discovered  by 
the  pupils.  The  most  usual  form  of  assignment  is  of  this 
type:  Take  the  next  selection,  or  take  to  page  so  and  so. 
And,  of  course,  in  such  a  case  the  pupil  has  to  both  find  the 
problem  and  master  the  solution,  often  an  insurmountable 
task  because  of  difficulties  of  words  and  facts  which  have 

396 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS 


397 


not  yet  been  clear  to  him.  An  assignment  studied  without 
necessary  assistance  is  exactly  the  same  as  self -education 
without  the  teacher,  since  the  self-made  man  stumbles  along 
without  assistance.  And  the  paramount  virtue  of  the 
teacher  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  rendering  assistance  where 
help  will  be  economical  of  time  and  effort. 

The  purpose  of  the  assignment  is  the  same  as  that  of  all 
school  processes — to  give  such  directions  as  will  help  the 
pupil  to  use  his  time  and  effort  spent  in  study  with  as  much 
economy  as  possible.  Only,  in  the  assignment  all  this  direc- 
tion has  to  be  given  before  the  study  begins,  while  in  the 
recitation  the  assistance  is  given  point  by  point  while  the 
work  is  being  carried  on,  a  much  easier  thing  for  the 
teacher. 

The  Hardest  Assignment  for  the  Pupils. — The  most 
difficult  assignment  for  pupils  to  work  out  is  the  one  just 
mentioned.  Take  from  page  so  and  so  to  page  so  and  so. 
It  is  hard  because,  as  was  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Text-books, 
such  a  unit  has  some  problem  and  a  solution  for  it.  Conse- 
quently, the  pupil  has  to  work  it  out  for  himself.  It  could, 
be  made  much  easier  for  him  if  the  teacher  would  uncover 
the  problems  and  still  easier  if  a  little  assistance  were  given 
to  assure  effort  along  right  lines. 

This  unassisted  form  of  assignment  is  the  ideal  form 
toward  which  the  teacher's  effort  should  be  directed.  It 
can  be  used  occasionally  where  the  pupils  have  been  well 
trained  as  to  methods  of  study,  and  where  the  intrinsic 
difficulties  of  the  form  and  thought  of  the  subject  are  easily 
within  their  powers,  but  there  never  has  been  a  class  in  the 
grades,  high  schools,  colleges  and  post-graduate  schools 
which  could  not  sometimes  be  wisely  assisted  by  intelligent 
aid  when  the  assignment  is  made. 

Motive. — The  student  needs  to  have  a  motive  for  the 


398  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

study  of  an  assignment  just  as  much  as  he  does  for  a  de- 
velopment lesson.  As  a  general  thing  the  motive  is  a  generic 
one  or  a  combination  of  several.  In  some  cases,  curiosity 
leads  him  to  discover  the  content  of  the  assigned  lesson; 
in  others,  desire  for  grades,  emulation,  etc.,  operate  to  make 
him  study.  But,  a  specific  motive,  the  consciousness  of  the 
worth  of  this  lesson  in  helping  him  to  solve  vital  problems, 
is  necessary  and  should  be  found  before  the  study  occurs. 

The  teacher  has,  of  course,  a  relatively  shorter  time  for 
doing  this.  However,  there  is  no  scientific  basis  for  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  covered  in  a  year.  By  common  con- 
sent, but  upon  empirical  observation,  school  administrators 
have  agreed  upon  a  certain  amount  to  be  covered.  But  this 
is  based  upon  the  old  cut-and-dried  method  of  teaching. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  in  the  wide  world  why  a 
teacher  who  works  more  intelligently,  since  this  takes  time, 
should  not  cover  one-half  this  amount  and  no  more,  if  in 
so  doing  the  pupils  are  working  economically  and  intelli- 
gently. In  all  probability,  within  a  generation  the  amount 
of  work  covered  will  be  cut  one-half,  so  far  as  topics  are 
concerned,  and  will  be  doubled  in  efficiency  and  in  the 
intensity  of  study  put  upon  what  is  undertaken.  But,  even 
as  arranged  on  the  present  basis,  the  work  will  progress  as 
rapidly,  more  rapidly,  if  time  is  taken  to  make  the  assign- 
ment intelligently,  because  the  pupils  will  then  be  able  to 
iake  a  longer  study  lesson. 

If  the  subject-matter  is  of  immediate  interest,  the  mere 
statement  of  the  problem  is  sufficient,  of  course,  as  has  been 
already  shown  (Chapter  II).  But  if  it  is  not  of  immediate 
interest,  the  motive  has  to  be  raised  by  an  introductory 
discussion. 

Definite  Statement  of  Problem. — Sometimes,  the 
teacher  may  tell  the  pupils  to  read  the  text  and  find  out 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  399 

what  are  the  problems  the  author  is  handling.  This  should, 
of  course,  be  done  only  when  there  is  no  doubt  about  their 
ability  to  do  so. 

Earhart  says  :l  "Little  children  will  learn  how  to  study 
by  being  trained  into  right  habits  of  studying  by  the  teacher. 
In  their  early  oral  work  in  literature,  reading,  or  nature 
study,  the  process  of  training  may  begin,  and  as  the  children 
gain  in  power  and  maturity,  more  and  more  may  be  expected 
of  them.  To  decide  upon  the  name  of  a  story  they  have 
heard  requires  reflection  upon  the  story  as  a  whole,  and 
judgment  as  to  the  most  striking  characteristics.  To  find  a 
better  title  to  the  reading  lesson  than  the  author  has  given, 
to  find  a  more  interesting  title,  or  at  least  to  find  a  different 
one  that  is  suitable,  will  require  similar  effort,  and  makes  a 
good  beginning  in  mastering  thought. 

In  addition  to  finding  the  subject  of  a  lesson  and  its  large 
divisions,  young  children  can  be  trained  to  see  what  ques- 
tion or  questions  the  author  has  answered  in  a  paragraph 
or  section.  Teacher  and  pupils  may  work  together  at  this 
until  the  latter  get  the  idea,  and  then  a  lesson  may  be 
assigned  to  give  practice  in  their  new  way  of  working. 
Children  naturally  ask  questions  calling  for  more  informa- 
tion, more  facts,  or  more  reasons,  and  need  guidance  in 
making  choice  of  such  questions  for  class  use.  Questions 
related  to  the  lesson  but  not  answered  in  the  book,  or  ques- 
tions growing  out  of  the  thought  given  in  the  text,  should 
he  encouraged,  and  pupils  should  be  trained  to  discriminate 
between  those  which  are  valuable  and  those  which  are  not. 
They  also  need  to  learn  how  to  express  the  questions  well. 
A  seventh  grade  which  had  less  than  a  month  of  this  work 
grew  quite  discriminating  as  to  the  nature  and  form  of 
questions  suggested  by  the  members  of  the  class.  These 

1  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  145-147. 


400 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


pupils  objected  to  questions  as  being  too  long,  as  lacking 
clearness,  as  telling  the  answer,  as  being  too  simple,  as  being 
clumsy  or  poorly  worded,  and  so  on.  They  were  giving 
themselves  some  excellent  training  in  the  art  of  questioning, 
and  were  mastering  their  texts,  since  they  had  to  judge  of 
the  correctness  of  the  answers  given  to  the  questions  which 
they  asked.  Pupils  in  lower  grades  can  do  something  in  this 
direction." 

But  in  general  it  is  necessary  to  state  the  problems  in  the 
assignment  until  they  are  so  trained.  This  statement  should 
be  definite.  The  questions  should  be  as  few  in  number  as 
will  bring  out  the  gist  of  the  assignment;  because,  on  the 
one  hand,  a  few  comprehensive  problems  will  produce  more 
thought,  and,  on  the  other,  the  labor  of  copying  problems 
by  the  pupils  for  home  study  should  be  minimized.  Such 
problems  should  also  be  dramatic,  interesting,  and  couched 
in  simple  language.  Seldom  should  questions  be  asked  that 
can  be  answered  by  yes  or  no.  They  should  be  works  of 
art  in  that  they  require  a  maximum  of  effort  in  answering 
and  are  couched  in  the  fewest  words  consonant  with  .clear- 
ness and  definiteness. 

Illustrations. — Take,  for  instance,  the  following  geog- 
raphy lesson  on  Germany  for  the  fifth  grade  (eleven-year- 
old  children). 

GERMAN    EMPIRE 

Form  of  Government. — Until  the  year  1871,  the  country 
marked  German  Empire  on  the  map  was  divided  among  a 
large  number  of  small  independent  governments.  In  that 
year  they  all  united  to  form  the  German  Empire.  The 
government  is  a  monarchy,  the  present  ruler,  called  the 
Kaiser,  being  Emperor  William  IT. 

Why  Agriculture  Is  Prominent  Here. — Germany  is  a 
better  agricultural  country  than  the  United  Kingdom,  for 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  401 

two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  much  larger  area 
of  level  land.  The  northern  half  of  the  country  is  a  plain, 
and  although  the  southern  half  is  hilly,  and  in  places  moun- 
tainous, there  is  much  good  farming  land  there. 

The  second  reason  is  the  warmer  summer  climate  in  a 
part  of  Germany,  for  Germany  lies  farther  from  the  sea 
than  the  British  Isles,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  Empire 
is  south  of  the  southern  part  of  England,  and  no  portion 
extends  so  far  north  as  northern  England. 

Farm  Products. — Among  the  chief  farm  products  are 
rye,  oats,  barley,  and  wheat.  Little  corn  is  raised,  but  pota- 
toes, which  were  introduced  into  Europe  from  America, 
are  a  very  valuable  crop. 

The  Germans  have  so  improved  the  beet  as  to  produce  the 
new  kind  known  as  the  sugar  beet,  from  which  sugar  is 
made.  Hops,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  and  grapes 
for  use  in  making  wine  are  grown  in  great  quantities.  There 
is  also  much  grazing,  especially  on  the  poorer  soils  and 
uplands,  and  there  are  great  numbers  of  cattle,  sheep,  hogs, 
and  goats.  . 

Lumbering,  and  Fishing. — There  is  much  more  forest 
land  in  Germany  than  in  Great  Britain,  about  one-fourth 
of  the  Empire  being  wooded.  The  Germans  take  great  care 
of  their  forests,  and  even  plant  trees  on  land  that  is  not 
especially  valuable  for  farming.  When  wood  is  needed, 
certain  trees  are  selected  for  cutting,  while  the  others  are 
left  to  grow.  Such  care  of  the  forests  is  called  forestry, 
and  the  forest  lands  of  Germany  are  as  carefully  attended 
to  as  are  many  farms.  The  Germans  are  the  leading 
foresters  of  the  world. 

Along  the  sea-coast  there  is  much  fishing,  but  this  is  less 
important  than  the  other  industries. 

Mining  and  Manufacturing. — As  in  Great  Britain,  min- 


4O2 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


erals  are  among  the  leading  resources  of  this  country.  Coal 
beds  exist  in  several  parts,  and  there  are  also  valuable 
deposits  of  iron  ore,  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  salt, 
and  other  minerals. 

With  abundant  coal  and  iron  ore,  Germany  has  become  a 
great  manufacturing  country,  making  all  kinds  of  iron  and 
steel  goods,  as  well  as  woolen,  cotton  and  linen  goods.  There 
are  many  other  kinds  of  manufacturing,  such  as  the  making 
of  sugar  from  sugar  beets,  the  brewing  of  beer,  and  the 
manufacture  of  wine  from  grapes.  Germany  ranks  next 
to  Great  Britain  among  the  manufacturing  countries  of 
Europe. 

Commerce. — Germany  exports  a  great  amount  of  sugar, 
wine,  beer,  textile  goods,  and  iron  and  steel  goods.  Like 
Great  Britain,  however,  she  must  import  all  of  her  cotton, 
much  of  her  wool,  and  much  of  her  food.  What  countries 
that  you  have  studied  might  send  these  products  to 
Germany  ? 

Like  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany  has  important  colo- 
nies, although  they  are  not  nearly  so  extensive  as  the  British 
colonies.  Her  trade  with  these  colonies,  which  are  mainly 
in  Africa,  is  of  considerable  value;  but  commerce  with 
other  countries  is  far  more  important. 

For  transportation  of  goods  from  one  part  of  the  Empire 
to  another,  Germany  is  greatly  favored  by  her  rivers.  From 
the  map  you  will  see  that  the  principal  ones  flow  northward. 
What  rivers  do  you  find?  Trace  their  courses. 

Navigation  is  possible  upon  all  of  these,  but  it  is  most 
extensive  on  the  Rhine.  Boats  can  ascend  this  stream  all 
the  way  from  the  sea  to  the  boundary  of  Switzerland.  How 
far  is  that?  You  can  see  how  very  important  this  must  be 
in  carrying  goods  across  the  Empire. 

Great    Centers    of    Population. — The    chief    seaport    of 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  403 

Germany  is  Hamburg,  on  the  Elbe  River.  Bremen,  west  of 
Hamburg,  is  another  important  port.  Why  are  these  cities 
more  favorably  situated  than  those  farther  east  on  the  Baltic 
Sea?  There  is  now  a  ship  canal  across  the  peninsula  south 
of  Denmark.  How  is  that  an  advantage  to  Germany? 

There  are  many  other  large  cities  in  Germany.  The 
greatest  of  all  is  Berlin,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  the 
Empire.  Here  are  located  the  palaces  of  the  Emperor  and 
many  government  buildings.  Berlin  has  also  many  museums, 
noted  picture  galleries,  and  a  large  university.  In  addition, 
it  is  a  great  manufacturing  center. 

Leipzig  is  well  known  for  its  trade  in  books,  while  Dres- 
den and  Munich,  like  Berlin,  have  wonderful  collections  of 
pictures.  The  schools,  universities,  and  museums  of  Ger- 
many are  among  the  best  in  the  world,  and  many  Americans 
go  each  year  to  study.  Cologne  has  an  old  cathedral  of 
note,  and  Frankfurt  is  an  important  center  of  commerce. 
Locate  each  of  these  cities  on  the  map. 

Summary. —  In  this  lesson,  certain  world  contributions  of 
the  Germans  are  stated — the  sugar  beet,  forestry,  manufac- 
turing, and  river  navigation.  She  is  noted  for  these,  and 
these  are  the  important  facts  to  be  remembered.  An  assign- 
ment should,  therefore,  be  made  to  cover  these,  and  let  the 
rest  of  the  facts  be  picked  up  incidentally,  if  at  all,  by  the 
pupils  (excepting  some  of  the  more  important  cities). 

ASSIGNMENT  QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  states  in  the  United  States  have  borrowed  the 
sugar  beet  from  Germany  and  raise  it  profitably? 

2.  What   should   your   state   do   to   make   its    forestry 
methods  as  wise  as  those  of  Germany? 

3.  Why  is  Germany  a  great  manufacturing  country? 


404  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

4.  From  what  countries  which  you  have  studied  could 
Germany  secure  cotton  and  wool  for  manufacturing? 

5.  What  would  the  United  States  have  to  do  to  use  its 
rivers  as  wisely  as   Germany  uses   its  for  carrying  com- 
merce ?    Why  does  it  not  do  so  ? 

6.  Study    the    map    of    Germany    carefully    and    from 
memory  draw  it — 

a)  showing  and  naming  the  rivers  given  in  the  map. 

b)  locating  and  naming  the  towns  mentioned  in  this 
lesson. 

The  second  question  makes  a  practical  application,  is  vital 
and  interesting,  and  at  the  same  time  requires  a  careful 
understanding  of  what  the  German  forestry  methods  are. 
Question  5  is  of  the  same  sort.  Question  6  is  of  use  as 
summarizing  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  topographical 
features  and  requiring  a  reading  of  the  names  and  of 
important  facts  about  the  cities. 

This  sort  of  assignment  raises  clearly  the  question  of 
following  the  text.  Is  every  fact  in  the  foregoing  lesson 
of  value,  each  point  to  be  learned  by  the  pupils?  Some 
will  answer  in  the  affirmative.  But  the  weight  of  argument 
is  against  it.  Very  few  books  are  worthy  of  such  study, 
as  any  one  who  has  written  a  book  or  studied  one  intelli- 
gently knows.  Much  material  must  be  used  to  give  a 
context  for  the  rest.  Then,  again,  every  text-book  writer 
has  his  limitations.  He  has  a  poor  perspective  of  what  the 
layman  not  versed  in  the  subject  needs.  To  him  everything 
in  the  subject  has  value,  while  for  the  outsider,  and  par- 
ticularly for  children,  who  are  not  specialists,  this  is  not 
true.  So,  in  the  foregoing  lesson,  in  my  opinion,  the  impor- 
tant points  about  Germany  given  in  this  lesson  are  the  ones 
I  have  picked  out.  Another  teacher  may  hold  a  different 
opinion.  But,  whatever  the  points  picked  out,  the  fact  re- 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  405 

mains  that  these  and  no  others  should  be  included  in  the 
assignment.  Another  instance  of  a  slightly  different  sort  is 
of  interest  because  it  involves  a  study  of  several  reference 
texts.  The  same  principle  is  in  evidence — only  the  pupils 
have  to  select  from  several  sources  their  material  for 
answering  the  questions. 

Illustration. — A  Lesson  on  the  Crimean  War.  This  is  a 
lesson  in  English  history  and  is  primarily  concerned,  there- 
fore, with  its  bearing  upon  England.  A  synopsis  of  the 
various  references  are  given,  followed  by  the  questions  for 
assignment,  with  careful  designation  of  short  references. 

Main  Problem. — Describe  England's  actions  in  relation 
to  the  Crimean  war  in  1854-6?  References: 

Wrong,  2\  pages,  p.  531.  After  Napoleon  fell,  it  was 
Russia  and  not  France  that  became  the  chief  rival  of  Eng- 
land. She  occupied  parts  of  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas,  and 
wished  to  reach  the  Mediterranean.  She  reached  across  Asia 
to  the  Pacific  and  threatened  India.  In  1853  the  Czar  made 
a  proposition  to  the  English  Minister  at  St.  Petersburg  to 
divide  Turkey  and  allow  England  to  have  Crete  and  Egypt, 
while  she  (Russia)  was  to  control  Turkey.  England  re- 
fused this  proposal.  The  trouble  started  in  regard  to  the 
control  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  in  Palestine.  Eng- 
land had  had  peace  so  long  that  her  army  was  very  much 
disorganized.  Russia  had  fortified  Sebastopol  and  had 
spoken  in  regard  to  the  partition  of  the  Sick  Man,  Turkey, 
and  made  an  attack  on  Turkish  territory.  England  joined 
the  Turks.  The  chief  battles  were  Alma,  Balaklava,  Inker- 
man,  and  Sebastopol.  Russia  was  forced  to  withdraw.- 
Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris:  Russia  was  to  place  no  war- 
ships on  the  Black  Sea  and  not  fortify  Sebastopol.  This 
treaty  was  broken  in  1870. 

Gardner,  p.  943,  4^  pages.    The  Eastern  question  had  been 


406  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

one  in  which  Russia  had  been  interested  for  a  number  of 
years.  It  was  concerning  the  partition  or  the  dividing  up 
of  the  Sick  Man,  Turkey.  A  dispute  arose  as  to  who 
should  control  certain  holy  places  in  Palestine.  No  com- 
promise could  be  effected,  so  Russia  negotiated  with  Sir 
Hamilton  Seymour,  England's  representative,  and  presented 
the  proposition,  offering  Crete  and  Egypt  to  England,  while 
the  Czar  himself  was  to  take  Turkey.  Russia  sympathized 
with  the  Turks  because  they  belonged  to  the  orthodox 
church.  The  Czar  also  had  ambitions  to  extend  his  domin- 
ions southward.  England  objected  to  this  proposition.  Then 
Russia  demanded  the  protection  of  the  Christian  subjects. 
The  four  strong  powers  at  that  time  were  Austria,  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  Russia.  These  powers  gave,  in  the 
Vienna  Note,  a  proposal  as  follows : 

Turkey  to  allow  Russia  to  extend  power  to  the  Turks, 
but  Canning,  the  British  Ambassador  at  Constantinople, 
would  not  accept  this  proposition.  Hence,  war  was  de- 
clared by  Russia.  Two  courses  there  were  now  for  the 
allies.  First,  join  and  substitute  European  protection  for 
the  Christians  for  merely  Russian  protection,  or,  second, 
to  destroy  the  Russian  fleet  on  the  Black  Sea.  England 
respected  the  Sultan's  powers  and  said  she  could  hold  her 
own  if  existing  charges  were  removed.  So  she  joined 
Turkey  and  transported  her  armies  to  the  Crimean  terri- 
tory. Then  the  battles  of  Alma,  Balaklava,  Inkerman,  and 
Sebastopol  took  place.  In  regard  to  Balaklava,  by  mis- 
taken order,  the  Light  Brigade,  of  which  the  famous  poem, 
Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  was  written,  was  annihilated. 
The  winter  in  Crimea  was  severe.  It  was  here  that  Florence 
Nightingale  with  her  volunteer  nurses  did  such  efficient 
work.  The  terms  of  peace  were  the  same  as  above. 

Oman,   /».   682,   7   pages.     Russia  had   had  her  eye  on 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  407 

Turkey,  the  Sick  Man,  for  some  time.  The  Czar  knew  that 
England,  France,  and  Austria  would  resent  his  invasion 
of  Turkey,  but  he  thought  that  he  could  satisfy  them  by 
dividing  with  them  the  spoils.  Yet  his  proposition,  as  be- 
fore mentioned,  was  rejected.  The  war  was  brought  about 
by  a  quarrel  in  regard  to  the  ruling  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  in  Palestine.  The  key  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and 
the  star  that  hung  over  the-  altar  of  Jerusalem,  were  the 
real  causes  of  the  trouble.  England  was  not  interested  in 
the  Key  and  Star,  but  she  was  interested  in  Constantinople. 
Canning,  the  English  Ambassador,  was  given  control  of  the 
East.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Russia,  and  he  drew  England 
into  war.  England  and  France  joined  the  Turks.  There 
was  great  lack  of  military  preparation  in  England.  Sebas- 
topol,  Alma,  Balaklavaj  and  Inkerman  were  battles  that  took 
place.  The  suffering  of  the  English  troops  was  horrible. 
By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  the  Czar  was  to  cede  Turkey  a  small 
strip  of  territory  along  the  Danube..  Sebastopol  wras  not 
to  be  fortified.  The  Sultan  was  to  give  new  rights  and 
liberties  to  his  subjects.  This  was  not  carried  out.  England 
and  other  nations  agreed  that  privateering  was  to  be  dis- 
continued. 

Ransome,  p.  440,  I  page.  The  origin  of  the  war  was 
the  Czar's  demand  that  the  Sultan  acknowledge  his  right  to 
protect  Christian  subjects  in  Turkey.  Lord  Aberdeen's 
ministers  failed  to  make  Russia  understand.  England  and 
France  were  for  the  Turks.  Russia  began  the  war  by  an 
attack  on  the  Danubian  provinces.  The  battles  as  before 
mentioned  followed.  The  results  were  that  the.  Russians 
were  defeated  and  no  fortifications  were  to  be  made  by  her 
on  the  Black  Sea. 

Terry,  p.  1022,  3^  pages.  The  Czar  wished  the  key  to 
the  Russian  House.  Lord  Aberdeen  was  his  friend.  The 


4o8  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Czar  spoke  of  the  Sick  Man,  Turkey.  Holy  places  in 
Palestine  became  the  objects  of  dispute.  The  Ministry  of 
England  was  divided  in  regard  to  what  England  should  do 
concerning  the  war.  Russia  took  advantage  of  this  divi- 
sion and  took  possession  of  the  Turkish  side  on  the  Danube. 
Russia  misunderstood  the  fear  that  other  nations  had  of 
her.  Aberdeen's  Minister  was  forced  to  resign  and  Palmers- 
ton  came  in.  This  seemed  to  give  new  courage  to  England. 
The  battles  above  mentioned  took  place.  Sardinia  joined 
the  allies.  The  conflict  ended  in  the  treaty  of  Paris. 

ist,  Sebastopol  was  restored,  but  not  to  be  fortified. 

2nd,  The  Danube  was  declared  free. 

3rd,  The  Christian  subjects  were  to  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  other  Christian  subjects. 

4th,  Privateering  was  abandoned. 

Russia  broke  this  treaty  in  1870. 

GUIDING  QUESTIONS 

(1)  What  was  the  Eastern  Question?     (See  Gardner, 
p.  943;  Wrong,  p.  531 ;  Oman,  p.  682;  Terry,  p.  1022.) 

(2)  What  did  Russia  want  to  do?    Why?     (Wrong,  p. 
531;    Gardner,  p.  943;    Oman,  p.  682;    Ransome,  p.  440; 
Terry,  p.  1022.) 

(3)  Describe  England's  attitude  and  Russia's  action  in 
regard  to  Turkey.     (See  all  of  the  above  references.) 

(4)  Connect   Charge   of  the  Light  Brigade,   Florence 
Nightingale,  suffering  of  the  troops,  etc.,  with  this  lesson. 
(See  Gardner,  p.  943;   Oman,  p.  682;  Wrong,  p.  531.) 

(5)  Give  the  results  of  the  trouble.     (See  all  of  the 
above  assignments.    Terry  and  Oman  are  the  best.) 

Assistance  in  Solutions. — Frequently,  it  is  necessary  to 
assist  the  pupils  still  further,  since  there  may  be  difficulties 
in  the  solution  that  will  give  unnecessary  trouble. 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  409 

In  original  solutions,  such  as  in  writing  a  theme,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  help  the  pupils,  to  collect  data  or  to  sug- 
gest sources  from  which  it  can  be. drawn.  As  an  example 
of  this,  the  foregoing  lesson  on  the  Crimean  War  is  a  case  in 
point.  In  such  a  lesson  as  this :  Describe  the  occasion  on 
which  you  were  most  frightened.  No  assistance  is  neces- 
sary. But  in  a  composition  on  The  Trials  of  Early  Settlers 
in  Columbia,  the  teacher  may  have  to  designate  whom  to 
interview,  what  books  and  old  newspapers  to  look  up,  etc. 

Frequently  in  text-book  work  help  has  to  be  given.  Diffi- 
culty may  arise  because  of  new  words,  which  may  need  to 
be  explained  by  the  teacher.  Some  expressions  obscure  to 
the  pupils  may  need  to  be  elucidated. 

Sometimes,  and  too  frequently  for  the  reputation  of  text- 
book writers,  the  subject-matter  is  poorly  organized.  This 
is  lamentably  frequent.  It  is  often  impossible  for  children 
or  adults  to  find  any  unit  in  paragraphs,  and  this  is  fre- 
quently worse  in  the  fourth  grade  than  in  eighth  grade  or 
high  school  texts.  By  a  wise  selection  of  the  points  of  diffi- 
culty, and  an  explanation  with  the  help  of  the  class,  much 
time  can  be  saved  and  more  intelligent  effort  can  be  put 
into  the  work  by  the  pupils  when  they  study.  This  is  very 
well  brought  out  by  Bagley".1  "In  another  fourth  grade  spell- 
ing lesson  the  following  words  were  assigned  for  spelling: 
close,  clothes,  brought,  thought,  carpenter,  adr>antage,  de- 
vour, pieces,  comfortable.  The  teacher's  general  method  of 
assignment  was  to  have  each  word  carefully  focalized,  syl- 
labicated, pronounced,  and  spelled,  first  silently  and  then 
aloud.  In  discriminating  between  homophones,  the  pupils 
were  required  to  use  the  words  correctly  in  sentences.  In 
focalizing  the  word  clothes,  the  teacher  pointed  to  the  e 
and  said,  "I  want  you  always  to  remember  to  put  this  letter 

1  Classroom  Management,  p.  196. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in."  When  brought  and  thought  were  under  discussion,  the 
teacher  asked  if  the  words  were  alike  in  any  respect.  A 
pupil  suggested  that  they  ended  in  the  same  way.  "Yes," 
said  the  teacher;  "if  we  cover  up  the  first  two  letters  of 
each,  they  are  alike.  Then  let  us  remember  what  these  two 
letters  are  for  each  word."  Mnemonic  devices  were  used 
in  focalizing  devour  and  pieces.  In  the  former  case,  the 
our  was  arbitrarily  associated  with  devour;  in  the  latter 
case,  pie  was  associated  with  pieces.  The  pupils  were 
familiar  with  the  spelling  of  both  our  and  pie.  Just  how 
far  such  mnemonic  devices  should  be  employed  is  an  open 
question,  but  the  results  in  these  instances  seemed  to  justify 
the  practice,  n  order  to  test  the  efficiency  of  this  assign- 
ment, the  same  words  were  given  to  the  class  five  days 
afterward.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  spelled  all  of  the 
words  correctly;  twenty  per  cent  failed  on  one  of  the  nine 
words.  The  same  lesson  was  given  to  another  class  of  the 
same  age  and.  grade,  without  assignment  or  study.  One  pupil 
spelled  eight  words  correctly ;  another  spelled  only  one  cor- 
rectly ;  the  average  standing  of  the  class  in  the  test  was  47 
per  cent. 

In  the  following  problems  in  arithmetic  for  seventh  gradt 
pupils  assistance  needs  to  be  given : 

1.  In  using  I  oz.  of  formalin  to  3  gals,  of  water  as  a 
steep  for  oat  seed  to  prevent  smut,  what  per  cent  of  for- 
malin is  used?     (i  gal.  of  water  weighs  8^  Ibs.) 

2.  Formalin  being  40  per  cent  formaldehyde,  what  per 
cent  of  formaldehyde  is  there  in  a  i-oz.-to-3-gal.  mixture? 

Such  terms  as  a  steep,  formaldehyde  and  its  uses, 
and  i-oz.-to-3-gal.  need  careful  explanation  even  to  farmer 
boys. 

In  a  poem  such  as  the  Epilogue  to  Asolando  certain 
explanations  are  necessary  to  a  high  school  class, 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  411 

At  the  midnight  in  the  silence  of  the  sleep-time, 

When  you  set  your  fancies  fr.ee, 

Will  they  pass  to  where — by  death,  fools  think,  imprisoned — 
Low  he  lies  who  once  so  loved  you,  whom  you  loved  so, 
—Pity  me  ? 

Oh,  to  love  so,  be  so  loved,  yet  so  mistaken ! 

What  had  I  on  earth  to  do 

With  the  slothful,  with  the  mawrkish,  the  unmanly? 
Like  the  aimless,  helpless,  hopeless,  did  I  drivel 

— Being — who  ? 

One  who  never  turned  his  back,  but  marched  breast  forward, 
Never  doubted  clouds  would  break, 

Never  dreamed,  though  right  were  worsted,  wrong  would 
triumph, 

Held  we  fall  to  rise,  are  baffled  to  fight  better, 
Sleep  to  wake. 

No,  at  noon-day,  in  the  bustle  of  man's  work-time, 

Greet  the  unseen  with  a  cheer ! 

Bid  him  forward,  breast  and  back  as  either  should  be, 
"Strive  and  thrive !"  cry,  "Speed — fight  on,  fare  ever 

There  as  here." 

An  assignment  on  this  lesson  may  take  the  following 
form:  First,  have  a  discussion  of  what  life  is  like  after 
death,  taking  various  views,  suggesting  others.  Work  up 
by  illustration  to  the  fact  that  one's  idea  of  heaven  is  doing 
the  things  one  loved  best  to  do  on  earth.  Then  set  these 
questions  on  the  Epilogue:  x 

1.  What  sort  of  man  is  described  here? 

2.  What" is  his  idea  of  what  he  will  do  after  death? 


412 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


But  the  poem  needs  a  good  deal  of  annotation  to  make  it 
intelligible.  This  may  be  done  by  having  the  pupils  make 
the  following  annotations  in  the  margin  of  the  text : 


At  the  midnight  in  the  silence  of  the  sleep-time, 

When  you  set  your  fancies  free, 

Will  they  pass  to  where — by  death,  fools  think,  imprisoned — 
Low  he  lies  who  once  so  loved  you,  whom  you  loved  so, 


Oh,  to  love  so,  be  so  loved,  yet  so  mistaken ! 
'^~  AWhat  had  I  on  earth  to  do 

With  the  slothful,  with  the  mawkish,  the  unmanly? 
Like  the  aimless,  helpless,  hopeless,  did  I  drivel? 

/ho? 


One  who  never  turned  his  back,  but  marched  breast  forward, 
Never  doubted  clouds  would  break, 

Never  dreamed,  though  right  were  worsted,  wrong  would 
triumph, 

Held  we  fall  to  rise,  are  baffled  to  fight  better, 
Sleep  to  wake. 


noon-day,  in  the  bustle  of  man's  work-time, 

rreet(tne  unsl  ^^vvith  a  cheer ! 
BidyJTiny forward,  breast  and  back  as  either  should  be, 
"Strive  and  thriveT^TyJ)" Speed — fight  on,  fare  ever 
' "ifiere  as  here." 


With  such  annotations,  which  seek  to  make  it  readable, 
the  pupils  can  with  effort  understand  it  air'  get  at  an  answer 
to  the  questions. 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  OF  LESSONS  413 

Drill  Lessons. — In  assigning  a  drill  lesson,  the  most 
important  thing  to  bear  in  mind  is  to  impress  upon  the 
pupils  the  methods  of  memorizing  and  drilling  that  need 
to  be  kept  in  mind,  for  only  by  constant  repetition  will  pupil? 
get  the  habit  of  memorizing  economically  by  concentrating 
attention,  working  for  speed  with  accuracy,  breaking  the 
periods  of  drill  up  into  small  units,  and  in  general  working 
for  the  highest  efficiency.  Tabulating  the  results  of  time- 
tests  will  help  much  in  making  drill  assignments  successful. 

Reviews. — In  reviewing  a  large  unit  covering  a  week 
or  more,  the  important  fact  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  the 
questions  of  review  should  be  such  as  require  a  memory 
of  only  the  important  points.  If  certain  parts  have  been 
memorized,  they  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  required. 
If  none  has  been,  then  only  the  outstanding  facts  need  to 
be  organized.  In  history,  for  instance,  it  is  a  crime  to 
require  detailed  statements  of  all  events.  Sufficient  has 
been  done  if  topical  questions  are  set  which  touch  the  main 
facts  and  their  significance. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CLASS  READING 

Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  pp.  192-206. 
Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  pp.  145-157. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Select   six  units   of   subject-matter  and   show   what 
assignment  you  would  make  for  each,  stating  the  previous 
knowledge  of  the  class.     Use  assignments  for  lessons  of 
varying  difficulty. 

2.  What  qualities  should  a  good  assignment  have? 

3.  At  what  time  in  the  recitation  hour  should  the  assign- 
ment ordinarily  be  made?     Give  an  example  of  its  being 
justifiably  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  period — at  the  close. 


4:4  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

4.  How  can  assignments  as  well  as  recitations  be  made 
developmental  ? 

5.  What  should  be  the  relation  between  the  interest  of 
class  work  and  of  preparation  work? 

6.  What  is  the  value  of  the  study  recitation-? 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  LESSON  PLAN 

SECTION  i.    FORM  OF  LESSON  PLAN 

After  long  experience  with  lesson  plans  and  the  writing 
of  plans  by  students,  the  writer  has  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  less  formal  they  can  be  made,  the  better  for  all 
concerned.  If  there  are  formal  steps  in  the  plan,  the  student- 
teacher  feels  that  he  must  make  each  lesson  conform  to  the 
plan,  when  as  a  matter  of  fact  few  lessons  are  true  to  type. 

The  lesson  plan  is  a  guess  at  what  the  teacher  will  have 
to  do  in  the  recitation.  But  it  is  only  a  guess,  for  the  lesson 
may  not  work  out  in  the  way  the  teacher  planned  it,  unless 
the  teacher  holds  the  class  to  his  plan  and  does  not  follow 
the  pupils'  leads.  Hence,  I  have  found  the  following  to  be 
a  good  method  of  attack  in  handling  lesson  plans. 

The  first  problem  in  preparing  a  lesson  is  to  determine 
the  function  and  structure  of  the  subject-matter  after  the 
manner  described  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  book,  in  the 
chapters  on  function  and  structure  of  subject-matter  and 
the  psychological  and  logical  organization  of  subject-matter. 

The  other  big  problem  is  to  determine  how  this  will  be 
taught.  The  first  is  the  problem  of  subject-matter,  the 
second  of  method. 

When  method  is  taken  up  there  are  several  problems  to 
be  considered.  The  order  of  their  consideration  is  imma- 

415 


416  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

terial.     But  each  has  to  be  thought  of  in  connection  with 
every  lesson.    These  may  be  tabulated  as  follows  i1 

1.  Motive. — What  form  will  the  motive  probably  take, 
and  how  shall  I  handle  it? 

Three  cases  arise.  A  problem  may  arise  in  lesson  of 
preceding  days.  The  problem  may  need  merely  to  be  stated 
in  order  to  prove  attractive.  Or  it  may  be  necessary  to 
create  a  need  for  the  work  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson. 

In  any  case,  a  statement  should  be  made  of  how  the 
problem  is  expected  to  arrive  in  the  consciousness  of  the 
pupils. 

2.  Type  of  Development. — In  the  solution,  should  induc- 
tion, deduction,  or  the  general  type  of  problem  and  solution 
be  used? 

3.  Psychological  Organisation. — How  is  the  lesson  to  be 
developed  step  by  step  ? 

4.  Past  Experience. — What  past  experience  will  prob- 
ably have  to  be  reviewed  with  the  pupils?    At  what  points 
should  this  be  brought  in? 

It   is   often  best   not  to   do   all   this   reviewing  at  the 
beginning. 

5.  Points  of  Difficulty. — At  what  points  will  the  pupils 
probably  need  assistance?     How  should  these  be  handled, 
giving    specific   questions?     This   is   the   crucial   point   in 
teaching.     If  one  can  handle  expertly  the  difficulties  the 
pupils  meet,  he  has  mastered  the  problems  of  teaching,  for 
cxpertness  involves  just  enough  assistance,  and  no  more 
than  is  necessary  to  give  the  pupils  their  rights  in  the  matters 
both  of  effort  and  assistance. 

6.  Summaries. — What  summaries  should  be  made?   At 

1  The  specific  questions  that  will  probably  be  asked  should  be 
stated  so  far  as  is  convenient. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


417 


what  points  should  they  be  made?     What  should  be  the 
content  of  the  summaries? 

7.  Concreteness. — What  materials  and  devices  should  be 
used  in  making  this  lesson  concrete?    How  in  detail  should 
these  be  handled? 

8.  Drill. — What  drill  exercises  should  be  given,  if  any, 
in  class,  in  assignment? 

9.  Application. — What  application  problems  in  class,- in 
assignment  ? 

10.  Assignment. — What  should  be  the  next  lesson's 
assignment  ? 

a)  Is  it  an  application  of  today's  lesson? 

b)  If  a  new  lesson,  how  may  motive  be  handled? 

c)  What  explanations  should  be  made? 

I  find  this  scheme  for  preparing  a  lesson  to  be  very  flex- 
ible. It  leaves  the  teacher  free  to  vary  the  order  of  his 
lesson  and  to  introduce  his  material  wherever  it  seems  wisest 
to  him. 

Summarized  Form. — Summarized  the  plan  will  take  on 
this  form: 

A.  Subject-Matter. 

1)  Function  (specific,  intrinsic). 

2)  Structure. 

B.  Method. 

i )     Motive. 

{induction 
deduction 
general 
[data 

3)  Psychological  organization^  hypotheses 

[verification 

4)  Review  of  past  experience. 

5)  Points  of  difficulty. 


4i8  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

6)  Summaries. 

7)  Concreteness  and  realness. 

8)  Drill. 

9)  Application. 
10)  Assignment. 

These  are  not  steps.  The  steps  taken  are  taken  in  the 
recitation.  They  are  merely  points  the  teacher  has  to  be 
prepared  for  beforehand,  so  that  the  recitation  may  proceed 
with  ease  and  satisfaction. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  one  really  needs  to  know  what  past 
experience  he  must  review,  and  what  illustrative  material 
he  will  introduce,  before  he  can  decide  upon  his  psycho- 
logical organization.  The  teacher,  in  preparing  the  lesson, 
will,  before  writing  it  out  in  final  shape,  have  to  first  have  a 
psychological  organization  of  his  own  plan.  That  is,  he 
will  have  to  think  it  over,  first  one  part,  then  another,  in 
whatever  order  occurs,  and  then  when  it  is  all  completed  he 
can  summarize  the  plan  he  expects  to  use.  There  is  a  good 
deal  of  fun  in  planning  a  lesson  and  watching  where  the 
plan  falls  short  of  what  actually  occurs.  The  student- 
teacher  will  often  think  he  is  prepared  for  every  emergency 
and  will  then  find  that  he  has  missed  the  mark.  Perhaps  in 
the  fifth  item  (Points  of  Difficulty)  he  thinks  he  is  prepared 
on  every  possible  difficulty,  and  finds  that  points  which  he 
supposed  the  pupils  would  handle  present  real  difficulties, 
while  some  of  those  he  prepared  for  caused  no  trouble.  So, 
also,  in  the  case  of  the  fourth  point  (Review  of  Past  Expe- 
rience) similar  conditions  may  arise. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  a  teacher,  after  every  lesson,  to  run 
over  the  work  and  ask  himself,  "Where  did  my  plan  fail?" 
It  is  not  a  crime  to  vary  the  actual  lesson  from  the  planned 
lesson.  What  is  needed  is,  by  careful  thought,  to  cover  all 
possible  contingencies,  and  measure  the  failure  of  prepara- 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


419 


12- 


Age  of  pupil 
13  years  (6th  year  of 
school). 


tion  by  the  number  of  situations  which  the  teacher  could  not 
handle  expertly. 

SECTION   2.    EXAMPLES  OF  WRITTEN   FORM 
Take  the  lesson  on  Excelsior  as  given  in  The  Method  of 
the  Recitation  (pp.  329-332)»  as  follows: 

PLAN  FOR  TEACHING  EXCELSIOR 

Teacher's  Principal  Aims — 

a.  Enjoyment   of    a    well-known 
poem,  hence  increased  love  of 
literature. 

b.  Appreciation  of  a  certain  moral 
idea,  i.  e.,  a  lofty  aim,  with  un- 
hesitating pursuit  of  same. 

METHOD  OF  PRESENTATION 

Pupils'  Aim — 

To   learn   what   became   of   a 

young    man    who    attempted    to 

climb  the  Alps. 

Describe  a  lofty  mountain.  What 
are  some  of  the  dangers  one  might 
expect  to  meet  in  climbing  it  ?  How 
do  the  monks  come  to  the  aid  of 
mountain  climbers? 

Read  the  poem,  stanza  by  stanza. 

What  is  meant  by  device,  fal- 
chion, clarion,  spectral  glacier,  aw- 
ful avalanche,  startled  air? 

Read  the  poem  through  carefully 
a  second  time.  Describe  the  region. 
Tell  the  story. 

Was  the  young  man  joyous  or 
sad?  Read  answer  in  words  of 


SUB  J  ECT-  M  ATTER 

Simple  narrative 
taken  literally.  Mean- 
ing of  difficult  words 
and  phrases.  Leading 
facts  in  literal  story. 


420 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


INTERPRETATION 

Longfellow  calls 
the  young  man  beau- 
tiful, and  in  last  two 
lines  suggests  his  as- 
cent to  heaven.  Story 
figurative. 

The  mountain  sig- 
nifies a  steep  road,  the 
route  necessary  for  an 
unselfish  life.  The 
happy  homes  and  the 
three  persons  signify 
types  of  temptation, 
or  of  overcautious  ad- 
visers. 

Striking  qualities  of 
the  young  man  are 
unselfishness,  courage, 
determination,  energy. 


author,  (vv.  2,  3,  5.)  Was  he  at- 
tractive or  unattractive  in  appear- 
ance? (vv.  2,  5,  9.) 

What  things  tempted  him  to  aban- 
don his  journey?  (vv.  3,  4,  5,  6.) 

Did  he  stop?  What  became  of 
him? 

Do  you  see  any  good  reason  why 
he  should  not  have  stopped?  Was 
he,  then,  a  foolish  fellow,  or  a  rash 
adventurer  ? 

What  is  Longfellow's  opinion  of 
him  in  the  last  verse?  How  explain 
such  approval? 

Since  the  story  is  not  to  be  taken 
literally,  let  us  see  how  it  should  be 
interpreted : 

What  does  the  mountain  signify? 
The  happy  homes?  The  old  man? 
The  maiden?  The  peasant?  Why 
is  the  device  spoken  of  as  strange? 
The  tongue,  as  unknown  ?  Meaning 
of  excelsior. 


What  are  the  striking  qualities  of 
the  young  man  ?  How  shown  ?  How 
was  a  motto  of  value  to  him?  Rea- 
son for  frequent  repetition  of  Ex- 
celsior? 

Describe  in  full  the  kind  of  per- 
son the  author  seems  to  admire. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


421 


All  efficient  persons, 
with  high  ideals,  must 
show  these  same 
qualities. 


Style. 

Diction — beauty, 
force. 


Good  oral  reading. 


Have  you  ever  known  or  heard 
of  such  persons :  Washington,  Lin- 
coln ?  Other  persons  in  history  ?  in 
present  time  ? 

Do  you  think  that- it  is  necessary 
for  every  good  person  to  exercise 
these  same  qualities  ?  Proof  ? 

Does  this  poem  encourage  reck- 
lessness? Proof?  At  what  times 
do  we  most  need  to  recall  it?  What 
are  the  advantages  of  possessing  a 
high  ideal?  How  is  it  helpful  to 
have  a  motto? 

Find  some  happily  chosen  words. 

Which  stanzas  show  the  charac- 
ter of  the  youth  most  forcibly,  in 
your  opinion?  Which  seem  to  you 
most  attractive. 

What  precautions,  if  any,  would 
you  suggest  for  the  proper  reading 
of  the  poem  aloud?  Read  it  aloud. 


Criticism. — I  have  varied  this  as  follows  in  actual 
operation  in  preparation  for  a  class.  (As  a  matter  of  fact, 
Excelsior  should  be  studied  in  the  high  school  rather  than 
in  the  sixth  grade.) 

A.     SUBJECT-MATTER. 

1)  Function.     To   illustrate    how    a   man    of   genius 
may  set  aside  all  temptations  in  accomplishing  his 
purpose. 

2)  Structure  as  stated  in  Chapter  VI,  above. 


422  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

We  find  above  in  McMurry's  outline  a  plan  in  which 
the  subject-matter  is  placed  on  one  side  of  the  page  and 
the  method  on  the  other.  This  plan  is  faulty  because  it 
inevitably  causes  the  teacher  to  follow  the  logical  organiza- 
tion of  the  subject-matter  on  the  left-hand  side,  and  this, 
as  we  have  seen,  again  and  again,  is  an  organization  to  be 
followed  only  in  the  summary.  It  is  much  better  to  first 
write  out  the  subject-matter  and  then  write  out  the  method 
below. 

B.     METHOD. 

1)  Motive. — Discuss  the  question   as  to  whether  it 
pays  or  not  to  give  up  all  sorts  of  fun  and  pleasures 
just  for  the  sake  of  doing  what  one  wants  to  do. 
Take  cases  pro  and  con  from  the  pupils'  own  expe- 
rience.    Shall  have  four  spectacular  cases  of  my 
own  to  fall  back  upon. 

State  what  the  poet  Longfellow  has  written  on 
this  subject  in  his  poem  called  Excelsior  which 
will  give  his  opinion.  Let  pupils  restate  problem 
to  be  discussed.  (This  is  pupils'  aim.  The  teach- 
er's aim  need  not  be  stated  in  every  lesson,  because 
it  seldom  varies  in  any  one  subject.) 

2)  Type  of  Development. — So  far  as  the  pupils  are 
concerned,  this  is  of  the  inductive  type.    They  are 
in  Excelsior  gathering  another  case   in  addition 
to  those  already  given  in  i,  above,  so  as  to  reach 
a  true  generalization. 

3)  Psychological  Organisation. 

(1)  Read  the  poem  stanza  by  stanza. 

(2)  Ask  the  pupils  if  they  see  what  the  author 
thinks  about  the  question. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


423 


(3)  If  they  do  not,  proceed  possibly  in  the  fol- 
lowing way,  taking  up  the  literal  story. 

(4)  (a)  What  did  the  boy  look  like?    Gather 

up  the  descriptive  phrases  and  get 
meanings  wherever  difficulties  occur. 
(Tabulate  on  blackboard.)  Sum- 
marize. 

(b)  In  what  condition  was  he  found  at 
the  last? 

(c)  What  inducements  did  he  have  to  re- 
main in  the  valley?     (Tabulate  and 
get  meanings.)     Summarize. 

(d)  Why   did  he  not  accept  the  invita- 
tions ? 

(e)  Do  you  see  now  which  side  the  author 
favors  in  our  discussion? 

(f)  If  they  do,  will  let  them  verify  by 
giving  detailed  interpretation,  stanza 
by  stanza. 

(5)  If  they  do  not,  proceed  to  interpret  some- 
what as  follows: 

(a)  What  does  this  banner  mean? 

(b)  What  name  do  we  give  a  person  with 
all  these  (tabulated)  qualities?  (Shall 
develop  word  "genius.") 

(c)  What  things  in  life  would  the  follow- 
ing stand  for? 

homes;  answer,  domestic  happi- 
ness. 

old  man;  answer,  cautiousness  of 
age. 

maiden ;  answer,  love. 

peasant ;  answer,  actual  dangers, 


424  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

monks;    answer,  religious  formal- 
ism (author's  statement), 
voice ;  answer,  reward  pronounced 

by  angels. 

(d)   Summarize  inducements  and  meaning 
of  each. 

(6)  Do  strong  people  ever  make  these  sacri- 
fices ?    Examples. 

(7)  Again,  does  Longfellow  think  it  pays? 

(8)  Do  you?    Why? 

(9)  They  may  or  may  not  agree  with  Long- 
fellow.    That    does    not    matter.     What 
they  have  is  Longfellow's  view,  and  I  shall 
see  that  this  view  is  made  part  of  them  so 
that  it  will  influence  their  lives. 

This  will  be  done  by  reading  it  over  and 
memorizing  it.1 

4)  Review  of  Past  Experience. — In  addition  to  that 
already  stated,  would  expect  that  the  meanings  of 
many  words  as  they  occur  could  be  gained  from 
memory.     Would  have  pupils  describe  other  in- 
stances of  perils  of  mountain  climbing,  and  would 
insert    them    after     (4)    (c)     in    the    preceding 
Psychological  Organization. 

5)  Points  of  Difficulty. — Meanings  of  the  following 

1  Remarks.  It  will  be  noted  that  this  development  differs  from 
McMurry's  in  the  following  ways.  The  preliminary  review  of  past 
experience  in  his  case  and  in  this  are  different.  We  use  this  review 
to  raise  the  problem.  He  uses  it  to  clarify  the  development. 

The  pupil's  aim  as  stated  by  McMurry  is  not  the  problem  as 
stated  here. 

McMurry  gives  the  literal  story  and  then  adds  the  interpreta- 
tion. Here  we  start  seeking  for  his  interpreted  meaning  and  take 
up  the  literal  story  when  the  attempt  at  interpretation  fails.  I  am 
convinced  that  this  will  produce  a  higher  grade  of  thinking  and  will 
shorten  the  time  necessary  to  get  hold  of  the  poem. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  425 

words.  (Depending  upon  class.)  Interpretation: 
particularly  monks.  Would  develop  religion  as 
follows :  He  was  a  good  boy.  Why  was  the  monas- 
tery not  the  place  for  him  to  stop?  (Because  he 
would  not  be  satisfied  there.)  Why?  (Develop, 
perhaps  tell,  the  idea  that  he  would  have  to  do  same 
things  day  after  day,  but  that  he  wanted  to  go  on 
and  on,  so  passed  formal  religion  by.) 

6)  Summaries. — All  I  would  make  are  indicated  in  3), 
above. 

7)  Concreteness. — Making  the  problem  of  the  poem 
real  to  the  pupils  before  beginning  its  study.    Pic- 
tures and  stories  of  mountain  climbing,   dealing 
fortunately  with  the  beauty  of  the  valleys  and  the 
rigors  of  the  mountain  tops.     Many  illustrations 
from  their  own  experience.     Strong  discussion  all 
the  way  through. 

8)  Drill. — Have  poem  memorized. 

9)  Application. — Have  pupils  collect  stories,  poems, 
and  events  in  history  in  which  men  either  did  or 
did  not  do  as  this  youth  did. 

Collect  instances  from  their  own  lives  in  which 
they  did  or  did  not  do  as  the  youth  did. 
10)  Assignment. — Have  poem  read  aloud  by  class. 
There  will  be  no  home  assignments  in  this  lesson 
(which  may  take  two  days)  until  the  last  day, 
when  they  will  be  required  to  memorize  part  of 
the  poem  and  write  a  paper  giving  a  detailed  in- 
stance of  each  of  the  four  following  cases : 

(1)  An  historical  character  of  the  type  of  the 
youth. 

(2)  An  historical  character  not  of  his  type. 


426  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

(3)  A  case  in  which  the  writer  displayed  the 
qualities  of  the  youth. 

(4)  A  case  in  which  he  did  not. 

These  instances  to  be  followed  by  the 
candid  opinion  of  the  pupil  upon  the 
discussion. 

Following  this,  the  assignment  on  the 
third  day  may  be  to  complete  the  memo- 
rization of  the  poem. 

This  is  an  assignment  of  application, 
and  no  further  explanation  will  be  neces- 
sary. 

Remarks.  In  writing  on  these  points  I  have  tried  to  be  as  informal 
as  possible  and  have  followed  no  set  plan. 

If  this  were  written  by  a  student-teacher  to  be  read  by  a  critic 
teacher,  the  critic  teacher  would  get  a  good  idea  of  the  proposed 
lessons  by  looking  at  A  first  and  then  under  B  at  Motive  and 
Psychological  organisation.  These  having  been  read  carefully  the 
other  points  would  readily  yield  any  supplementary  information. 

ARITHMETIC — FIFTH  GRADE 
Aim. 

To  teach  division  of  decimals. 

The  following  is  assumed  as  class  knowledge  upon  which 
the  process  should  be  based : 

1.  Ability  to  read  and  write  decimals. 

2.  Vivid  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  one  hundred 
to  ten,  ten  to  one  unit,  one  unit  to  one  tenth,  one 
tenth  to  one  hundredth,  etc. 

3.  Knowledge   of  the  process  of  division  of  whole 
numbers. 

4.  The  principle:    multiplying  or  dividing  both  divi- 
dend and  divisor  by  the   same  number  does  not 
change  the  quotient. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  427 

Preparation. 

i.     Division  by  integer. 

a.     Find   the   value  of    i         b.     Find   the   value   of    i 
acre  of  land  if  15  acres  cost     acre  of  land  if  15  acres  cost 


$  5141  $  51.41 


75  75 

21  21 

15  15 

~6i  6.1 

60  6.0 

15  -15 

15  -15 

Compare  the  steps  in  (b)  with  the  corresponding  steps 
in  (a).  The  pupil  will  experience  no  difficulty  in  telling 
the  unit  that  each  quotient  figure  represents,  for  he  knows 
that  -dividing  any  number  into  parts  does  not  change  its  unit. 

Presentation. 

a.  12  is  contained  in  36  how  many  times? 

12)36 

3 

b.  Multiply  both  dividend  and  divisor  in  (a)  by  2. 
24  is  contained  in  72  how  many  times  ? 

24)72 


428  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

c.  Multiply  both  dividend  and  divisor  in  (a)  by  10. 
1 20  is  contained  in  360  how  many  times  ? 

120)360 

3 

Compare  the  quotients.  Recall  the  principle :  Multiplying 
both  dividend  and  divisor  by  the  same  number  does  not 
change  the  quotient. 

d.  .2  is  contained  in  2.4  how  many  times. 

Multiplying  both  numbers  by  ten,  to  what  is  the  di- 
visor changed  ?    To  a  whole  number. 
2  is  contained  in  24  how  many  times  ? 

2)24 

12 

e.  .22  is  contained  in  2.42  how  many  times? 

Change  .22  to  a  whole  number,  by  multiplying  both 

the  numbers  by  100. 
22  is  contained  in  242  how  many  times  ? 
ii 


22)242 

22 

22 

22 

f.     .005  is  contained  in  .125  how  many  times? 

By  what  shall  both  numbers  be  multiplied  so  that  .005 

may  become  the  whole  number  5  ? 
5  is  contained  in  125  how  many  times? 


25 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  429 

g.     2.88  is  contained  in  3.456  how  many  times  ? 

By  what  shall  both  numbers  be  multiplied  so  that  2.88 

may  become  the  whole  number  288? 
288  is  contained  in  345.6  how  many  times? 
1.2 

288)345-6 
288 

57-6 
57-6 

Many  such  examples  will  enable  the  pupils  to  formulate 
the  generalization:  "To  divide  by  a  decimal,  multiply  the 
dividend  and  divisor  by  the  power  of  ten  that  will  change 
the  divisor  to  an  integer,  then  divide  as  in  simple  division." 
Criticism. — It  is  better  in  this  lesson  after  taking  up 
preparation  la  and  b,  to  give  a  problem  like  this:  How 
many  slices  of  ham  .2  in.  thick  can  be  cut  off  a  ham  with 

4.2  in.  in  the  clear?  and  get  a  problem  in  this  form,  .2)4.2. 
If  they  handle  it,  give  them  another,  harder  problem.  If 
they  do  not,  then  there  is  much  good  in  saying,  "Let  us 
find  out  how  to  handle  division  where  there  are  decimals 
in  the  divisor."  To  let  them  see  what  they  are  after  is 
better  and  will  produce  more  thoughtful  results  than  Presen- 
tation a,  b,  c,  above,  without  such  an  introduction. 

If  they  cannot  handle  .2)4.2,  then  I  would  say,  I  will  give 
you  two  or  three  problems  as  hints,  and  would  then  follow 
with  Presentation  a,  b,  c,  above,  and,  as  I  give  b  and  c, 
I  would  ask  the  children  if  they  yet  saw  the  trick. 
When  enough  had  been  taken  to  recall  the  principle  as 
given  below  Presentation  c,  above,  I  should  then  ask  them 

what  to  do  with  .2)4.2  in  order  to  get  the  answer  "multiply 


430 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


each  by  10,"  and  then  would  expect  Presentations  e,  f,  g 
to  follow  as  application  problems. 

LESSON  ON  LESSON  PLANS 

The  following  quotation  of  a  lesson  and  criticism  thereof 
sets  the  point  of  initial  problem  out  clearly : 

Pupil's  Aim:  Why  do  I  need  to  make  plans,  and  what 
are  the  elements  of  a  good  plan  ? 


SUBJECT-MATTER 

I.    Necessity  for  planning. 

A.  Lack  of  interest  in 
old  work. 

B.  Subject-matter 
changes. 

a.  Subjects  grow. 

b.  T  h  e  experiences 
of   different 
groups    of    chil- 
dren vary. 

C.  Not  safe  to  depend 
upon  the  inspiration 
of  the  moment  for — 

a.  Good  questions. 

b.  Illustrations    and 
illustrative   mate- 
rial. 

c.  References     to 
books    or    maga- 
zines. 

d.  Plans     for     con- 
structive    work 
and  the  like. 


METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE 

Do  you  ever  grow  tired  of 
teaching  the  same  subject  over 
and  over  again? 

Why  does  a  sermon  out  of 
the  "barrel"  lack  in  interest  or 
power  to  inspire? 

Do  you  know  a  subject  thor- 
oughly to-day  because  you  once 
studied  it? 

Why  do  different  groups  of 
children  respond  differently  to 
the  same  materials? 

Formulate  three  good  ques- 
tions which  you  might  use  in 
teaching  a  lesson  on  the  oak 
trees  to  second  grade  children. 

Do  you  think  you  might  have 
asked  better  questions  if  you 
had  had  time  to  think  them 
over? 

What  picture  or  other  illus- 
trative material  would  you  use 
in  teaching  this  lesson  ? 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  431 

Do  you  think  the  children 
would  gain  by  drawing  a  pic- 
ture of  the  oak  near  by? 

When  do  you  think  you  will 
have  had  enough  experience  in 
teaching  to  be  able  to  get  along 
without  making  plans? 

Criticism. — In  trying  this  on  a  class  and  abandoning 
any  attempt  to  follow  the  left-hand  outline  at  first,  I 
asked  my  class,  Why  is  lesson-planning  necessary?  And, 
without  suggestive  questions  of  any  sort,  I  received  the 
following  answers,  Without  it  wandering  occurs,  cannot 
get  in  all  that  one  ought,  organization  poor,  cannot  arrange 
time  for  different  parts,  and  cannot  get  proper  questions. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  several  of  these  replies  fit  into  the 
left-hand  scheme,  but  not  in  the  order  given.  After  this 
preliminary  question,  which  cleared  up  a  good  many  points 
in  the  logical  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter,  questions 
such  as  those  connected  with  B,  and  C,  b  and  c,  were  used. 

The  point  at  issue  is  whether  the  students  should  be 
allowed  to  go  as  far  as  they  can  without  suggestive  ques- 
tions, or  whether  it  should  be  presupposed  that  every  point 
must  be  suggested  and  in  their  logical  order.  And  there 
seems  to  be  every  reason  for  taking  the  first  rather  than 
the  second  position. 

SECTION  3.    THE  WRITING  OF  LESSON  PLANS 

The  most  perplexing  problem  that  confronts  the  inexpe- 
rienced teacher  in  the  preparation  of  lesson  plans  is  that 
of  placing  in  a  written  form  the  things  he  wants  to  do  in 
teaching  a  lesson.  It  is  one  thing  to  have  a  lesson  plan; 
it  is  quite  another  thing  to  write  one. 


432 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


Yet  the  difficulties  are  chiefly  mechanical,  and  arise  from 
the  fact  that  each  thing  to  be  done  has  to  be  put  somewhere. 
Students  worry  over  whether  a  particular  thing  to  be  done 
should  be  classed  under  preparation  or  development,  under 
development  or  application.  For  instance,  should  the  re- 
view of  past  experience  be  put  in  the  preparation  or  the 
development?  Or  should  the  reading  of  a  literature  lesson 
be  placed  under  application  or  development? 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  makes  little  difference  what  we  call 
anything  to  be  done,  provided  we  do  it  at  the  right  time. 
Hence,  McMurry1  is  wise  in  presenting  a  lesson  plan  which 
does  not  have  the  different  phases  marked  off  by  lines. 
And  in  the  same  spirit  of  not  introducing  too  many  techni- 
calities, the  critic  teacher  is  wise  in  laying  down  few  rules 
in  regard  to  the  written  form.  If  the  practice  teacher  shows 
that  he  has  obeyed  the  principles  of  teaching  in  his  lesson 
plan,  he  may  be  excused  from  slavish  adherence  to  any  set 
form. 

Methods  of  Alleviating  Drudgery. — The  written  lesson 
plan  is  the  heaviest  cross  of  practice  teachers.  This  is  due 
to  the  mechanical  difficulties  just  mentioned,  and  to  the 
drudgery  of  writing  it  out  in  legible  form.  The  critic 
teacher  views  it  with  hardly  less  dread  than  the  practice 
teacher,  for  it  means  laborious  monotony  day  and  night. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  protects  the  pupils  from  glaring 
errors  in  subject-matter  and  method.  Writing  the  plan 
out  makes  the  student  think  it  out  more  exactly,  and,  in 
some  cases,  where  the  student-teacher  is  inclined  to  slight 
his  work,  the  written  plan  serves  as  a  check  against  neglect. 

How  to  alleviate  this  drudgery  is  an  important  question. 
The  following  plan  is  suggested :  For  purposes  of  explana- 
tion, let  us  group  the  practice  teachers  in  three  divisions, 

1  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  pp.  329-332. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


433 


strong,  medium,  and  indifferent.  For  the  indifferent  stu- 
dents there  is  no  recourse  except  the  writing  of  daily  lesson 
plans,  full  and  complete,  as  a  check  upon  their  carelessness. 
For  the  others,  let  us  suppose  that  they  are  to  teach  twelve 
weeks.  Require  full  lesson  plans  from  everybody  for  a 
week.  For  two  weeks  at  critic  meeting  take  up  the  ques- 
tion of  subject-matter,  and  nothing  else.  Then  have  the 
student  teachers  hand  in  plans  in  which  subject-matter  is 
worked  out  carefully,  and  do  not  ask  for  a  statement  of 
method.  Since  we  have  already  eliminated  the  indifferent, 
the  critic  teacher  knows  that  even  though  the  student  does 
not  write  his  method,  he  is  thinking  it  out  from  day  to  day. 
As  the  weeks  go  on,  require  the  students  to  hand  in  subject- 
matter  plans  until  there  is  confidence  that  they  can  organize 
it  satisfactorily,  and  then  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  be  excused  from  handing  this  in,  though  of  course  they 
will  still  work  it  out  carefully  for  themselves.  The  strong 
students  can  be  excused  by  this  arrangement. 

After  spending  a  couple  of  weeks  on  subject-matter  in 
critic  meetings,  motive  may  be  discussed  at  a  meeting  or 
two,  and  during  that  time  the  students  should  hand  in  plans 
particularly  full  on  this  phase.  When  the  teacher  is  sure 
that  they  can  apply  the  principles  reasonably  well,  they  may 
be  excused  from  handing  in  the  plans.  Then  proceed  to  the 
principles  of  realness,  or  psychological  organization,  or  what- 
ever else  is  needed,  one  at  a  time,  and  expect  particular 
attention  to  be  paid  to  each  till  fairly  well  mastered. 

This  plan  lightens  the  work  of  the  critic  teacher  in  these 
respects.  •  The  strong  practice  teachers  can  be  excused  from 
writing  full  lesson  plans,  the  medium  teachers  can  be  ex- 
cused from  those  parts  in  which  they  are  strong.  And  the 
fact  that  they  will  be  excused  from  the  written  work  as 
soon  as  the  teacher  has  confidence  in  their  ability  to  handle 


434  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

it  will  raise  the  tone  of  the  preparation  of  the  whole  class, 
strong,  medium,  and  negligent. 

In  so  far  as  the  practice  teacher  never  grows  strong 
enough  to  be  trusted  in  any  of  the  work,  there  seems  to  be 
no  practical  way  to  get  rid  of  this  drudgery. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS   FOR  CLASS  READING 

Adams,  J. — Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching.     The 

Macmillan  Co.,  1910. 
Alling-Aber,  M.  R. — An  Experiment  in  Education.   Harper, 

1897. 

Angell,  J.  R. — Psychology.    Holt,  1908. 
Bagley,  W.  C. — The  Educative  Process.     Macmillan,  1907. 
Bagley,  W.  C. — £lass  Room  Management.  Macmillan,  1910. 
Bagley,  W.  C. — Educational  Values.    Macmillan,  1911. 
Baldwin,  J. — School  Management.    W.  J.  Gage  &  Co.,  1885. 
Betts,  G.   H. — The  Recitation.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co., 

1911. 

Bolton,  F.  E. — Principles  of  Education.    Scribner's,  1911. 
Bourne,    H.    E. — The    Teaching    of   History.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  1902. 
Chamberlain,  A.  F. — The  Child,  a  Study  in  the  Evolution 

of  Man.     Walter  Scott,  1900. 

Creighton,  J.  E. — An  Introductory  Logic.    Macmillan,  1905. 
De   Garmo,   Charles — Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

Macmillan,  1907. 
Dewey,  John — The  Child  and  the  Curriculum.    University 

of  Chicago  Press,  1902. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


435 


Dewey,  John  —  How  We  Think.    Heath,  1911. 

Dewey,  John  —  Interest  as  Related  to  Will.     Herbart  Year 

Book,  second  Supplement,  University  of  Chicago  Press, 

1899. 
Dewey,  John  —  The  School  and  Society.    University  of  Chi- 

cago Press,  1899. 
Dopp,  K.  E.  —  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Educa- 

tion.   University  of  Chicago  Press,  1902. 
Earhart,  L.  B.  —  Teaching  Children  to  Study.     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co,  1909. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley  —  Adolescence.    Appleton,  1907. 
Herbartian   Society,    Year   Book    of   the.       University    of* 

Chicago. 

Hyde,  W.  D.—  Practical  Ethics.     Holt,  1892. 
James,  W.  —  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology  and  to  Stu- 

dents on  Some  of  Life's  Ideals.    Holt,  1901. 
Keith,  J.  A.  H.  —  Elementary  Education.     Scott,  Foresman, 


Kirkpatrick,  E.  A,  —  The  Individual  in  the  Making..  Hough- 

ton,   Mifflin   &  Co.,   1911. 
McMurry,  C.  A.  —  The  Elements  of  General  Method.    Mac- 

millan,   1903. 
McMurry,  C.  A.  —  Special  Method  in  Geography,  Macmil- 

lan,  1904. 
McMurry,  C.  A.  and  F.  M.  —  The  Method  of  the  Recitation. 

Macmillan,  1903. 
McMurry,  F.  M.  —  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to 

Study.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1909. 
Miller,  I.  E.  —  The  Psychology  of  Thinking.     Macmillan, 

1909. 
O'Shea,    M.    V.  —  Education    as    Adjustment.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  1903. 
Parker,  F.  W.  —  Talks  on  Pedagogics.    Kellogg,  1894. 


436  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Pyle,   W.   H. — The   Outlines   of   Educational   Psychology. 

Warwick  &  York,  1911. 

Raub,  A.  N. — School  Management.    Raub  &  Co.,  1882. 
Rowe,  S.  H. — Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teach- 
ing.   Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1909. 
Ruediger,    W.    C. — Principles    of    Education.     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.,  1910. 

Scott,  C.  A. — Social  Education.    Ginn,  1908. 
Scott,  H.  M. — Organic  Education.    Heath,  1899. 
Smith,  A.,  and  Hall,  E.  H. — The  Teaching  of  Chemistry. 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1902. 
Spencer,  H. — Education.    Appleton,  1909. 
Stone,  C.  W. — Training  School  Course  of  Study.     State 

Female  Normal  School,  Farmville,  Va.,   1911. 
Stevens,  R. — The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in 

Instruction.     Columbia  University,  1912. 
Strayer,  G.  D. — A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process. 

Macmillan,  1911. 
Sutherland,  W.  J. — The  Teaching  of  Geography.     Scott, 

Foresman,  1909. 
Thorndike,    E.    L. — The   Principles   of    Teaching.     A.    G. 

Seiler,  1906. 


SCHOOL  SUBJECT  INDEX 

Algebra,  application  of,  38;  function  of,  46;  method  of  solving 
problems  in,  189. 

Arithmetic,  anticipatory  type  of  lessons  in,  350;  function  and  struc- 
ture in,  95 ;  function  of,  in  primary  grades,  77 ;  incidental  to 
American  history,  240;  induction  in,  318;  lesson  plans  in,  426; 
and  mental  ability,  32 ;  method  of  securing  motive  in,  261 ; 
method  of  solving  problems  in,  188 ;  the  need  in,  38,  161 ; 
origin  of,  29;  subject-matter  with  different  functions  and 
structures,  100;  as  a  way  of  acting,  36. 

Art  in  high  school  course  of  study,  115. 

Astronomy,  origin  of,  27. 

Basketry,  intrinsic  function  of,  79. 

Biology  in  high  school  course  of  study,  116. 

Book-keeping,  origin  of,  27. 

Botany,  function  of,  81 ;   is  mental,  31 ;   origin  of,  26. 

Carpentry,    function  of,   79. 

Chemistry,  function  of,  81 ;  in  high  school  course  of  study,  116; 
primitive  origin  of,  26. 

Civics,   incidental   to  American  history,   241. 

Composition,  anticipatory  type  of  lesson  in,  350 ;  in  high  school 
course  of  study,  115;  incidental  to  American  history,  239; 
method  of  securing  motive  in,  246 ;  psychologized,  225 ;  and 
values,  65. 

Cooking,  function  of,  79. 

Domestic  science  in  the  high  school  course  of  study,  116. 

Drawing,  incidental  to  American  history,  242. 

Economics  in  the  high  school  course  of  study,   116. 

Foreign  languages,  function  of,  79. 

Geography,  anticipatory  type  of  deductive  lesson  in,  346;  assign- 
ment of  study  lesson  in,  400;  content  of  pupils  minds  in,  33; 
explanatory  type  of  deductive  lesson  in,  345 ;  function  of,  74 ; 
Herbartian  lesson  plan  in,  323,  327;  incidental  to  American  his- 
tory, 241;  is  mental,  31;  origin  of,  29;  psychological  and  logical 
organization  of,  218;  subject-matter  with  different  functions 
and  structures,  102. 

Geometry,  primitive  origin  of,  27. 

German,  induction  in,  318. 

437 


438  SCHOOL  SUBJECT  INDEX 

Grammar,  function  of,  69;  incidental  to  American  history,  238; 
induction  in,  317,  331;  origin  of  grammatical  forms,  27. 

History,  in  high  school  course  of  study,  116;  anticipatory  type  of 
lesson  in,  349;  assignment  of  study  lesson  in,  405;  as  a  central 
subject  in  the  seventh  grade,  236;  English,  structure  dependent 
on  function,  98;  function  of,  43,  55,  73;  a  function  of  English, 
87;  group  work  in,  134;  lesson  in  English,  210;  is  mental,  31; 
method  of  securing  motive  in,  256;  stating  the  relations  of 
parts  (in  English),  87. 

Hygiene,  function  and  structure  of  a  lesson  in,  93. 

Language,  intrinsic  function  of,  63 ;  function  of  individual  language 
forms,  67. 

Literature,  anticipatory  type  of  lesson  in,  348;  assignment  of  study 
lesson  in,  410;  in  the  grades,  79;  function  and  structure  in,  94; 
Herbartian  lesson  plans  in,  322,  324,  330 ;  incidental  to  Ameri- 
can history,  237;  lesson  plans  in,  419;  is  mental,  31;  review  of 
relevant  past  experience  in,  358;  subject-matter  with  different 
functions  and  structures,  103. 

Manual  training,  origin  of,  27. 

Millinery,  function  of,  79. 

Music,  function  of,  79. 

Nature  study,  group  work  in,  133 ;  incidental  to  American  history, 
241 ;  raising  a  problem  in,  176. 

Painting,  function  of,  79. 

Physics,  function  of,  81 ;  in  the  high  school  course  of  study,  116; 
method  of  securing  motive  in,  264;  method  of  solving  prob- 
lems in,  194. 

Physiology,  in  high  school  course  of  study,  116;  incidental  to 
American  history,  241. 

Punctuation,  function  of,  70. 

Reading,  function  of,  70;  function  of  primary,  78;  incidental  to 
American  history,  237;  method  of  securing  motives  in,  253; 
how  to  cure  mumbling  in,  171 ;  psychological  organization  in 
primary,  218. 

Rhetoric,  forms  of,  68;  function  of,  68;  structure  dependent  upon 
function  in,  100. 

Science,  the  function  of,  143. 

Sociology,  function  of,  81 ;  in  the  high  school  course  of  study,  115. 

Spelling,  assignment  of  study  lesson  in,  409 ;  function  of,  55 ; 
function  and  structure  in,  97 ;  incidental  to  American  history, 
238. 

Writing,  function  of,  70;  incidental  to  American  history,  ?.yj\ 
method  of  securing  motive  in,  255 ;  origin  of,  27. 

Zoology,  function  of,  81. 


Adams,    J.,    176,    183,    194,    318, 

335,  372. 

Alexander,   C,  247. 
Alling-Aber,  M.  R.,  230,  244. 
Angell,  J.  R.,  14,  152,   160,   171. 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  21,  24,  36,  47, 
171,  182,  185,  266,  270,  276. 
293,  335,  343,  345,  346,  353,  356, 
364,  393,  409,  4i3- 

Baldwin,   J.    M.,    144. 

Baldwin,    Joseph,    307,    312. 

Betts,  G.  H.,  312. 

Bolton.    F.    E.,    144,    150,    156. 

353,  369- 

Bourne,  H.   E..  42,  45,  46. 
Buck,  G.  and  Scott,  F.  N.,  70. 
Burk,  F.,  2*17. 

Chamberlain,  A.  F.,  36,  137,  144. 

Clark,    L.,    132. 

Cox.,    J.    H.,    330. 

Creighton,  J.   E.,   205,   316,   335. 

De  Garmo,  C.,  157,  183,  204,  205, 

348,  353,   393- 
Dewey,  J.,  23,  144,  147,  151,  156, 

183,    194,    205,    209,    231,    244, 

353- 

Dopp,  K.  E.,  144,  231,  244,  261, 
265,  372. 

Farhart,  L.  B.,  178,  183,  205, 
287,  290,  293,  399,  413. 

Genung,  J.  F.,  280. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  108,  117,  265. 
Hall,  E.  H.,  and  Smith,  A.,  43. 
Horn,   E.,  236. 
Hyde,  W.  D.,  13. 

James,   W.,    150,   154,   156. 


Keith,  J.  A.  H.,  312. 
Kirkham,    S.,    314. 
Kirkpatrick,    E.   A.,    144. 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  151,  155,  156, 
227,  244,  355,  372. 

McMurry,  C.  A.  and  F.  M.,  9, 
181,  270,  273,  276,  278,  315, 
322,  323,  325,  335,  364,  372. 

McMurry,    F.    M.,   291,   293. 

Meriam,  J.  L.,  235. 

Millar,  J.,    13. 

Miller,  I.  E.,  160,  184,  205. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  21,  24. 

Parker,  F.  W.,  230,  244. 
Pyle,   W.   H.,   126,  393. 

Raub,  A.  N.,  312. 
Rowe,  S.  H.,  9,  387,  393. 
Ruediger,  W.  C.,  21,  24. 

Scott,  C.  A.,   132,  144,  199,  205. 

Scott,  F.  N.  and  Buck,  G.,  70. 

Scott,  H.   M.,  232,  244. 

Smith,  A.,  43,  44,  46. 

Smith,  A.  and  Hall,  E.  H.,  43. 

Socrates,   308. 

Spencer,  H.,   16,   184. 

Stevens,  R.,  312. 

Stone,  C.  W.,  235. 

Strayer,    G.    D.,    133,    144,    255, 

312,   335,    300,   393- 
Sutherland,  W.  J.,  288,  293,  327, 

353- 

Titchener,  E.  B.,  148. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  121,   144,   156, 
335,  340,  342,  353,  364- 


Van  Liew,  C.  C.,  137,  144. 


439 


TOPICAL  INDEX 


Acquired   controls,    186. 

Active   Motives,    173. 

Aim,  statement  of,  vs.  raising 
of  problem,  183. 

Aims  of  education  and  values, 
ii. 

Alertness  in  text-book  study, 
292. 

Alling-Aber's  plan  of  central 
subj  ects,  230. 

Answers,  310. 

Anticipatory  type  of  deductive 
lesson,  343,  346. 

Apperception,  355. 

Application  step  in  teaching, 
378;  before  and  after,  380;  im- 
portance of,  378;  made  by  pu- 
pils, 383;  versus  drill,  384. 

Appreciation  of  values,  21,  202; 
in  language,  64. 

Assignment  of  lessons,  chap. 
XXIV;  motive  in,  397;  prob- 
lems in,  398. 

Author,  function  of  subject- 
matter  from  the  standpoint  of 
the,  48. 

Blackboards  as  an  aid  in  teach- 
ing,   370. 
Books   and    subject-matter,    30. 

Central    subjects,    229. 

Children's  meanings,  35. 

Class     questions'  and     answers, 

311- 
Comparison  in  inductive  method, 

325. 

Complete  living  and  values,   16. 
Concentration    and    correlation, 

plans   of:    Alling-Aber's,  230; 

Dewey's,     231 ;     Dopp's,    231 ; 

Meriam's,  235;   Parker's,  230; 

Scott's,  232 ;  Stone's,  235. 


Concentration  of  subjects,  228. 

Concrete  activities  in  relation  to 
problems,  177. 

Conflict  of  ideas  in  relation  to 
problems,  176. 

Confrontation  as  a  source  of 
problems,  176. 

Constructive  instinct,  use  of,  in 
learning,  129. 

Control   of  values,    22. 

Correlation  of  subjects,  226. 

Course  of  study,  high  school, 
107;  factors  in  the  selection 
of,  107 ;  details  of  selection, 
no;  tentative  list  of  required 
subjects,  115. 

Culture  epoch  theory,    136. 

Curiosity  as  a  source  of  prob- 
lems, 178. 

Data,  in  deduction,  341 ;  in  in- 
duction, 320;  in  text-books, 
282. 

Decorative  function  of  subject- 
matter,  47. 

Deduction,  chapter  XX,  defini- 
tion and  analysis,  337 :  rela- 
tion to  induction,  351 ;  special 
form  of  problem  and  solution, 
340 ;  types  of  deductive  les- 
sons, 343. 

Developing  method,  the,  268; 
advantages,  271 ;  limitations, 
273;  versus  "telling"  275. 

Developing  questions,   300. 

Dewey's  statement  of  central  in- 
terests, 231. 

Disciplinary  function  of  subject- 
matter,  47. 

Docility  in  text-book  study.  292. 

Dopp's  statement  of  central  in- 
terests, 231. 


441 


442 


TOPICAL  INDEX 


Dramatization     as     an     aid     in 

teaching,  368. 
Drill,    383 ;    versus    application, 

384;    methods    of    drill,    389; 

motive   for,   387 ;    preparatory, 

389;  selection  of  material  for, 

385. 

Electives  and  required  subjects 
in  the  high  school  course  of 
study,  114. 

Explanatory  type  of  deductive 
lesson,  343,  345. 

Five  Formal  Steps,  the,  321. 

Function,  distinctions  in  the 
meaning  of,  chap.  Ill ;  for  the 
author,  teacher  and  pupil,  47 ; 
decorative,  47 ;  disciplinary,  47 ; 
indirect,  46;  classes  of  indi- 
rect, 47 ;  intrinsic,  43 ;  prepara- 
tory, 47. 

Function  and  structure  of  sub- 
ject-matter, relation  of,  90,  il- 
lustrations, chap.  VI. 

Function   of   questioning,   296. 

Generalization  in  the  inductive 
method,  325. 

Generic  values,  165. 

Genetic  differences  in  pupils,  125. 

Group  work  and  the  social  in- 
stinct, 131. 

Growth  of  subject-matter,  219. 

Habit  in  relation  to  problems, 
175;  and  drill,  389. 

Herbartian  Five  Formal  Steps, 
321. 

High  school  course  of  study, 
chap.  VII. 

Hypothesis,  the,  197 ;  in  deduc- 
tion, 342;  in  induction,  320;  in 
text-books,  288. 

Imagination  as  an  aid  in  teach- 
ing, 366. 

Immediate  interest,  151 ;  what  is 
of?  152. 

Incidental  subjects,  236. 


Incidental  to  the  study  of  his- 
tory, subjects:  arithmetic,  239; 
civics,  241 ;  composition,  239 ; 
drawing,  242 ;  geography,  241 ; 
grammar,  238 ;  literature,  237 : 
nature  study,  science  and  phys- 
iology, 241 ;  reading,  237 ; 
spelling,  238;  writing,  237. 

Individual  differences  of  pupil:- 
121. 

Induction,  definition  of,  316;  es- 
sentials of,  317;  function  of, 
316;  special  form  of  problem 
and  solution,  320. 

Inductive  method,  chap.  XIX : 
criticism  of,  329;  orig'n  of 
314;  steps  in,  321. 

Informational  questions,  296. 

Inherited  controls,   185. 

Instincts  and  values,  14;  avail- 
able in  teaching,  126. 

Instruction,  forms  of,  :hap. 
XVI. 

Interest,  characteristics  of,  147 ; 
degrees  of,  149;  kinds  of,  150 
(direct  and  indirect,  151 ;  im- 
mediate and  mediate,  154;  na- 
tive and  acquired,  150)  ;  things 
of  immediate  interest,  152 ; 
and  values,  16,  146. 

Intrinsic  function,  43 ;  and  spe- 
cific, 45;  of  subject-matter, 
chap.  IV. 

Introspection  as  an  aid  in  teach- 
ing, 139- 

Lecture  method,  269. 

Lesson  plan,  the,  chap.  XXV ; 
form  of  written,  415;  the 
writing  of,  431. 

Logic  and  structure  of  subject- 
matter,  84. 

Logical  and  psychological  or- 
ganization of  subject-matter, 
chap.  XIII ;  logical  organiza- 
tion in  the  summary,  217. 

Logically  organized  subject- 
matter,  224. 


TOPICAL  INDEX 


443 


Mediate  interest,  conditions  giv- 
ing rise  to,  154;  need  as  a 
method  of  securing,  158. 

Meriam's  plan  of  central  activ- 
ities, 235. 

Motive,  chaps.  IX,  X,  XI; 
active  and  potential,  173;  in 
assigning  lessons,  397;  defi- 
nition of,  146;  and  interest, 
chap.  IX,  and  need,  chap.  X; 
method  of  securing  (illustra- 
tions) XV;  review  for,  358. 

Natural  consequences,  discipline 
of,  as  a  source  of  problems, 
179- 

Need,  specific  examples,  158, 
160;  analysis  of,  159;  char- 
acteristics of,  161 ;  constant 
presence  of,  162 ;  and  control, 
188:  how  to  create  a  specific, 
170 :  as  a  method  of  securing 
mediate  interest,  158;  value  of 
conception  in  education,  163. 

Needs  and  values,  16. 

Parker's  plan  of  concentration, 
230. 

Past  experience,  the  utilization 
of,  chap.  XXI. 

Potential  motives,  173. 

Practical  experience  as  an  aid 
in  teaching,  142. 

Preparation  step  in  the  inductive 
method,  322. 

Preparatory  function  of  subject- 
matter,  47. 

Presentation,  323. 

Problem,  in  assignment,  definite 
statement  of,  398;  and  break 
down  of  habits,  175 ;  and  con- 
flict among  ideas,  176;  and 
concrete  activities,  177 ;  and 
control,  188;  and  curiosity, 
178;  defining  the,  196;  and 
discipline  of  natural  conse- 
quences, 179;  and  induction, 
320:  as  motive.  174;  origin  of, 
175;  series  of  problems,  203; 
and  solution  in  deduction,  340; 


and  statement  of  aim  in  in- 
ductive method,  181 ;  in  text- 
books, 279. 

Psychological  and  logical  organ- 
ization of  subject-matter,  chao. 
XIII. 

Psychological  processes  as  ways 
of  acting,  37. 

Psychologized  subject-matter, 
225. 

Psychology  as  an  aid  in  teach- 
ing, 140. 

Pupils,  assistance  of,  23 ;  avail- 
able instincts  in,  126;  charac- 
teristics of,  121 ;  genetic  dif- 
ferences, 125 ;  individual  dif- 
ferences, 121 ;  function  of 
subject-matter  from  the  stand- 
point of,  48. 

Questioning,  chap.  XVIII ;  class 
questions  and  answers,  311: 
function  of,  296;  Socratic 
method  of,  307;  standards  in, 
305 ;  structure  of,  304. 

Realness,  methods  of  securing, 
chap.  XXII. 

Required  subjects  in  the  high 
school  course  of  study,  114. 

Reviews  for  motive,  358;  as  an 
aid  in  solution,  360 ;  for  func- 
tional connection,  361 ;  of  the 
previous  lesson,  362. 

Scott's  plan  of  central  interests 
and  subjects,  232. 

Skill,  method  of  raising  stand- 
ards in,  377;  standards  of, 
376 ;  value  of,  374 

Social  instinct,  the,  in  learning, 

131- 

Social   institutions,    as    ways    of 

acting,   37. 

Socratic  method,  307. 
Specific  values,  169. 
Standards  of  questions,  305. 
Statement    of    the    aim    versus 

raising  the  problem,  181. 
Stone's  plan  of  central  interests. 

235- 


444 


TOPICAL  INDEX 


Structure  of  questions,  304. 

Structure  of  subject-matter, 
chap.  V,  and  logic,  84. 

Subject-matter,  chap.  II ;  and 
action,  26;  correlated  and  con- 
centrated, 226;  dependent  on 
function,  98;  with  different 
functions  and  structures,  100; 
as  end  and  as  means,  54; 
growth  of,  219;  incidental  and 
systematic  treatment  of,  chap. 
XVI ;  indirect  function  of, 
46;  as  an  instrument,  374; 
intrinsic  function  of,  chap. 
IV;  logically  organized,  224; 
origin  of,  26 ;  organization  of, 
83 ;  psychological  and  logical 
organization  of,  chap.  XIII ; 
psychologized,  225 ;  in  pupils' 
experience,  62 ;  structure  of, 
chap.  V;  systematized,  243; 
the  use  of,  chap.  XXIII. 

Sympathy  in    teaching,    138. 

Systematization  of  subject-mat- 
ter, 243. 

Teacher,  function  of  subject- 
matter  from  the  standpoint  of 
the,  48. 

Teaching,  function  of,  9. 

Teaching,  the  problem  of,  119; 
of  subject-matter,  chap.  VIII. 

"Telling,"    266. 

Test  questions,  299;  standards 
for,  305. 


Text-book  method,  268. 

Text-books,  chap.  XVII;  data 
in,  282;  hypothesis  in,  288; 
problems  in,  279;  weakness  of, 
281 ;  verification  in,  289. 

Use  of  subject-matter,  chap. 
XXIII. 

Values,  control  of,  chap.  XII, 
22;  acquired,  186;  analysis  of 
the  process  of,  187;  classes 
of,  185 ;  in  relation  to  data, 
202;  in  relation  to  hypothesis, 
197 ;  and  induction,  320 ;  in- 
herited controls,  186;  methods 
of  control,  185 ;  in  relation  to 
problem,  188;  in  relation  to 
verification,  202. 

Values  and  aims  of  education, 
n;  appreciation  of,  21;  classes 
of,  17,  167 ;  complete  living 
and,  16;  degrees  of,  18;  gen- 
eric, 165 ;  and  instincts,  14 ; 
and  interest,  17,  146;  and 
needs,  16;  and  problems,  16; 
specific,  169;  and  the  virtues, 
13- 

Verification,  199;  in  deduction, 
343 ;  in  induction,  321 ;  and 
problems,  201 ;  in  text-books, 
289. 

Virtues  and  values,   13. 


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